HANDBOOKS  for  Students  and  Central  Reader i. 

HISTORY  OF 

AMERICAN    POLITICS 

BY 

ALEXANDER  JOHNSTON,  LL.D. 

LATE  f  ROFESSOR  IN  PRINCETON  COLLEGE. 

FIFTH  EDITION,   REVISED  AND  ENLARGED 
BY 

WILLIAM  M.  SLOANE,  Ph.D.,  L.H.D. 

PROFESSOR  OF  HISTORY  AND  POLITICAL  SCIENCE  IN  PKlNCETON  COLLEGR. 

!  I  45o 


NEW  YORK 

HENRY   HOLT   AND   COMPANY 
1901 


Copyright,  1890, 


HENRY  HOLT  &  CO. 


THE    MERSHON   COMPANY    PRESS, 
RAHWAY,    N.    J. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  THIRD  EDITION. 

This  edition  of  what  is  now  a  standard  text-book 
in  academies  and  colleges  throughout  the  land  ap- 
pears ten  years  after  the  first.  These  ten  years 
had  elevated  the  author  from  obscurity  to  a  posi- 
tion of  the  highest  authority  as  a  historian  when 
he  died  in  July  of  last  year.  This  book,  which  not 
only  created  but  sustained  the  ever-increasing  repu- 
tation of  Professor  Johnston,  should  therefore  stand 
as  the  writer  left  it.  Accordingly,  in  bringing  it  up 
to  date,  the  editor  has  treated  the  text  with  rever- 
ence, and  has  sought  in  the  few  additions  made  to 
preserve  the  spirit  and  plan  of  the  original  volume. 

Princeton,  May  i,  1890. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION. 

This  book  was  first  published  in  March,  1879. 
Since  that  time  corrections  have  been  made  for  each 
of  the  eight  times  that  the  book  has  been  put  to 
press,  but  these  have  been  comparatively  so  unim- 
portant that  it  has  not  at  any  time  seemed  fitting  to 
call  the  result  a  new  edition.  It  would  hardly  be 
proper,  however,  to  allow  this  issue  to  go  out  ex- 
cept as  a  new  edition.     In  it  the  whole  book  has 


iv  Preface, 

been  carefully  revised  and  brought  down  to  date ; 
detached  portions  have  been  rewritten  ;  the  whole 
outline  history  from  1868  until  1881  has  been  given 
very  much  more  fully  than  was  possible  while  events 
were  still  uncertain  ;  and  a  new  appendix,  called  for 
by  many  correspondents,  has  been  added  in  the 
form  of  a  list  of  the  cabinets  of  the  successive  ad- 
ministrations, with  the  dates  of  appointment. 

For  the  guidance  of  readers  who  desire  to  study 
more  fully  the  history  of  which  this  is  an  outline,  a 
classified  list  of  authorities  is  given  below. 

The  scope  of  the  book  will  be  sufficiently  indi- 
cated by  repeating  the  last  paragraph  of  the  preface 
to  the  first  edition  : 

"The  design  of  the  book  is  not  to  present  the 
politics  of  the  States,  or  to  criticise  party  manage- 
ment, but  to  make  our  natiofial  political  history 
easily  available  to  young  men.  It  is  of  interest  to 
the  whole  republic  that  young  citizens  should  be 
able  to  learn  that  true  national  party  differences 
have  a  history  and  a  recognized  basis  of  existence, 
and  should  be  prevented  from  following  factitious 
party  differences,  contrived  for  personal  objects  by 
selfish  men.  If,  for  this  purpose,  this  book  shall  be 
considered  worthy  to  serve  as  an  introduction  to 
the  larger  works  already  in  existence,  its  object  will 
be  accomplished." 

NoRWALK,  Conn., ya««/zt-y  2,  1882. 


Preface, 


AUTHORITIES. 

Historical.— Bancroft's  United  States  (to  1782);  Pitkin's 
United  States  (to  1 797)  ;  Hildreth's  United  States  (to  1820)  ; 
Hamilton's  Republic  of  the  United  States  ;  Tucker's  United 
States  (to  1840)  ;  Hammond's  Political  History  of  New  York 
(to  1840)  ;  von  Hoist's  United  States  (vol.  3,  to  1850)  ;  Spen" 
cer's  United  States  (to  1856)  ;  Benton's  Debates  of  Congress 
( 1 789-1 8 50)  ;  Appleton's  Annual  Cylopcedia  (1861-1888)  ; 
Statutes  at  Large ;  Electoral  Count ;  Benton's  Thirty  Years* 
View  (1820-50)  ;  North  American  Review,  January,  1876 
("Politics  in  America");  Draper's  Civil  War  in  America; 
Greeley's  American  Conflict  (to  1865)  ;  Statesman' s  Manual 
(to  1858)  ;  ViWsoxvs  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Slave  Power ;  Lunt's 
Origin  of  the  Late  IVar ;  Giddrngs's  Rebellion. 

Biographical. — Marshall's  Life  of  Washington  ;  Randall's 
Life  of  fefferson  ;  Adams's  Life  of  John  Adams  and  Life  of 
John  Quincy  Adams ;  Rives's  Life  of  Madisott  ;  Jay's  Life 
of  John  Jay ;  Sparks's  Life  of  Gouverneur  Morris  ;  Austin's 
Life  of  Gerry  ;  Parton's  Life  of  Burr  and  Life  of  Jackson  ; 
Hammond's  Life  of  Wright ;  Garland's  Life  of  Randolph  ; 
Collon's  Life  of  Clay  ;  Curtis's  Life  of  Webster ;  Schuckers's 
Life  of  Chase  ;  Pollard's  Life  of  Jefferson  Davis  ;  Raymond's 
Life  of  Lincoln  ;  Tyler's  Life  of  Taney  ;  Barnes's  Thirty- 
ninth  and  Fortieth  Congresses  ;  Spencer's  Life  of  T.  F.  Bay- 
ard;  Poore's  Political  Register. 

Historical  (Special  Periods).— Lodge's  English  Colo- 
nies;  Frothingham's  Rise  of  the  Republic;  Curtis's  Llistory 
of  the  Constitution;  Jameson's  Constitutional  Convention; 
H.  Adams's  Documents  Relating  to  New  England  Federalism  ; 
Dwight's  Hartford  Convention  ;  Carey's  Olive  Branch  ;  Inger- 
soll's  Second  War  with  Great  Britain  ;  Peter's  Cherokee  Case  ; 
Gouge's  Banking  in  the  United  States ;  Stryker's  American 
Register  {iS^gS'i}  ;  Cairnes's  Slave  Power ;  Greeley's  Slavery 
Restriction  ;  Chittenden's  Peace  Conference  ;  McPherson's  His- 


vi  Preface, 

tory  of  the  Rebellion  and  History  of  the  Reconstruction;  Put- 
nam's Rebellion  Record;  Whiting's  War  Rowers ;  Callan's 
Military  Laws  ;  Eaton's  Civil  Service  i?t  Great  Britain  ;  The 
Nation  (1865-81). 

Strict  Construction. — Van  Buren*s  Origin  of  Political 
Parties ;  Capen's  Democracy ;  Gillet's  Democracy  in  the 
United  States  ;  Jefferson's  Writings  ;  Madison's  Writings  ; 
Woodbury's  Wi'itings ;  Calhoun's  Works;  Hunt's  Life  of 
Livingston;  Sedgwick's  Political  Writings  of  William  Leg- 
gett ;  Byrdsall's  Loco-Foco  Party ;  Hamilton's  Memoir  of 
Rantoul ;  Democratic  Review;  Waxuss  Political  ConJIict ; 
Buchanan^ s  Administration  ;  A.  H,  Stephens's  War  Between 
the  States  ;  Centz's  Republic  of  Republics. 

Loose,  or  Broad,  Construction. — Hamilton's  Works  ; 
John  Adams's  Works ;  Webster's  Works ;  Clay's  Speeches ; 
Story's  Commentaries  ;  Whig  Review ;  Ormshy's  Whig  Party  ; 
Seward's  Works ;  Sumner's  Works ;  Creswell's  Speeches  0/ 
LLenry  Winter  Davis ;  Mulford's  The  Nation;  Andrew's 
Handbook  of  the  Constitution ;  Farrar's  Manual ;  Tiffany's 
Constitutional  Laiv  ;  Kurd's  Theory  of  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment. 

Miscellaneous. —  Tribune  Almanac  (1838-81):  Cluskey's 
Political  Text-book;  Greeley's  Political  Text-book  of  i860; 
Congressional  Reports  (particularly  those  on  Kansas,  Harper's 
Ferry,  Covode  Lnvestigation,  Impeachment  of  President  John- 
son, Reconstruction,  Ku  Klux  Conspiracy,  Credit  Mobilicr, 
Louisiana)  \  Poore's  Federal  and  State  Constitutions  ;  Appen- 
dix D  is  to  be  credited  to  Spofford's  American  Almanac  ;  Ap- 
pendix H  has  been  furnished  by  the  various  Departments. 


Additional. — Bancroft's  History  of  the  Constitution  ;  Mc- 
T'taster's  History  of  the  People  of  the  United  States  ;  Henry 
Adams's  History  of  the  United  States  ;  John  Fiske's  American 
Political  Ideas  and  other  works  ;  Lalor's  Political  Cyclopaedia  ; 
American  Commonwealth  Series  ;  American  Statesman  Series  ; 


Preface,  vii 

Scribner's  Statistical  Atlas  ;  Roosevelt's  Naval  History  of  the 
War  of  i8i2  and  Winning  of  the  West ;  the  Histories  of 
Schouler,  Higginson,  Eggleston,  and  Johnston  ;  Winsor's 
Narrative  and  Critical  History  ;  H.  H.  Bancroft's  History  of 
the  Pacific  Coast;  Battles  and  Leaders  of  the  Civil  War ; 
Blaine's  Tzventy  Years  of  Congress ;  Personal  Narratives  of 
Grant,  Sherman,  McClellan,  Hood,  Beauregard,  and  Johnston. 


CONTENTS. 

Preface  and  Authorities,       .  .  .  .Hi 

Introduction,  ,  .....        i 

CHAPTER  I. 

Origin  of  Political  Parties  in  ihe  United  States.  Formation 
of  the  Constitution  of  1787,  under  the  guidance  of  the 
Federal  Party,  .  .  .  .  .3 

CHAPTER  II. 

First  Administration,  i 789-1 793.     Settlement  of  the 

government,  and  rise  of  the  Republican  party,         .       19 

CHAPTER  III. 

Second  Administration,  1793-1797.  The  political  con- 
tests of  Europe  transferred  to  America.  Success  of 
the  Federalists  in  the  first  national  party  contest,     .       30 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Third  Administration,  1797-1801.  Continued  success 
of  the  Federalists.  Alien  and  Sedition  Laws.  Defeat 
of  the  Federalists.     The  disputed  election  of  1800,         44 

CHAPTER  V. 

Fourth  Administration,  1801-1805.     The  Republican 

Party  in  Power.     Purchase  of  Louisiana,     .  55 

ix 


X  Contents, 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Fifth  Administration,  1805-1809.  Continued  decline 
of  the  Federal  Parly.  The  Napoleonic  Wars.  The 
Embargo,       .  .  .  .  ,  ,64 

CHAPTER  Vn. 
Sixth  Administration,  1809-1813.     War  with  England. 

Opposition  to  it  by  the  Federalists,  ,  ,       73 

CHAPTER  Vni. 

Seventh    Administration,   1813-1817.     Discontent  in 

New  England.     The  Hartford  Convention.     Peace,       Si 

CHAPTER  IX. 
Eighth  Administration,  1817-1821.     Disappearance  of 
the  Federal  Party.     Appearance  of  loose  construction- 
ist Republicans.     Purchase  of  Florida.     The  Slavery 
Question,  and  the  Missouri  Compromise  of  1820,     .       89 

CHAPTER  X. 

Ninth  Administration,  1821-1825.  The  Era  of  Good 
Feeling.  Real  existence  of  Parties.  The  disputed 
election  of  1824,         .  .  .  .  .98 

CHAPTER  XI. 
Tenth  Administration.  1825-1829.     Formation  of  the 
National  Republican  and  Democratic  Parties.     Suc- 
cess of  the  Democrats,  ....      103 

CHAPTER  XII. 
Eleventh  Administration,  1829-1833.     The  Opposi- 
tion.    Rotation  in  office.     NuUification.     The   Na- 
tional Bank,  .  .  .  .  ,     109 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

Twelfth  Administration,  1833-1837.  Removal  of  the 
Deposits.  Success  of  the  President.  Slavery  and 
the  Anti-Slavery  Society,       .  .  ,  .123 


Contents,  xi 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

Thirteenth  Administration,  1837-1841.  Panic  of 
1837.  Defeat  of  the  Democrats.  Appearance  of  an 
Abolition  Party,         .  .  .  .  .133 

CHAPTER  XV. 

Fourteenth  Administration,  1841-1845.     The  Whig 
Party  in  Power.     Its  disagreement   with    President 
Tyler.     Success  of  the   Democrats,  and  Annexation 
of  Texas,       ......     140 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

Fifteenth  Administration,  1845-1849.  The  Demo- 
cratic Party  in  power.  War  with  Mexico.  The  Sla- 
very Question  revived  as  to  territory  acquired  from 
Mexico.  The  Wilmot  Proviso.  The  Formation  of 
the  Free  Soil  Party.  The  Whig  Party  evades  the 
Slavery  Question,  .....  149 
CHAPTER  XVII. 

Sixteenth  Administration,  i 849-1 853.  The  Whig 
Party  in  power.  Adoption  of  Squatter  Sovereignty 
by  the  Democrats.  California.  The  Compromise  of 
1850.     Its  acceptance  by  the  Whig  Convention,       .     159 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

Seventeenth  Administration,  1853-1857.  The  Demo- 
cratic Party  in  power.  The  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill, 
and  the  Repeal  of  the  Compromise  of  1820.  Divi- 
sion of  the  Whig  party.  Rise  of  the  Republican  and 
the  American  Parties.     Kansas,        .  .  .     167 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

Eighteenth  Administration,  1857-1861.  The  Dred 
Scott  Decision,  and  its  Consequences.  Southern 
Democrats  reject  Squatter  Sovereignty.  Division  of 
the  Democratic  Party.  Success  of  the  Republicans. 
Secession,  Conciliation,  and  attempted  Compromise,     179 


xii  Contents, 

CHAPTER  XX. 

Nineteenth  Administration,  1861-1865.  The  Repub- 
lican Party  in  Power.  Civil  War.  Loose  Construc- 
tionist Measures.  The  Democratic  Party  opposes  the 
War  and  is  defeated.     Abolition  of  Slavery,  .     197 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

Twentieth  Administration,  1865-1869.  Return  of 
the  seceding  States  to  the  Union.  Reconstruction. 
Disagreement  between  Congress  and  the  President. 
The  Democratic  Party  opposes  Reconstruction  by 
Congress  and  is  defeated,  ....  207 
CHAPTER  XXII. 

Twenty-first    Administration,    i 869-1 873.     Recon- 
struction by  Congress  accomplished,  and  the  results 
of  the  War  finally  accepted  by  the  Democratic  Party. 
The  "  Liberal  Movement."     Success  of  the  Republi- 
can Party,      ......     220 

CHAPTER  XXIIL 

Twenty-second  Administration,  i 873-1 877.    Disturb- 
ances in  the  South.     The  enforcement  of  Reconstruc- 
tion.    The  disputed  Presidential  Election  of  1876,        234 
CHAPTER  XXIV. 

Twenty-third  Administration,  1877-1881.  Ques- 
tions of  Currency  and  Financial  Legislation.  The 
condition  of  the  Civil  Service,  .  .  .     249 

CHAPTER   XXV. 

Twenty-fourth  Administration,  1881-1885.  The 
Republican  Party  in  Power.  Scramble  for  Office. 
Civil  Service.     The  Pendleton  Act,  .  .     259 

CHAPTER   XXVI. 

Twenty-fifth  Administration,  1885-1889.  The 
Democratic  Party  in  Power.  Civil  Service  Commis- 
sion. Tariff-reform  made  a  party  issue.  Growth  of 
Corporations.      Knights  of  Labor,  .  .      268 


Contents.  xiii 

CHAPTER    XXVII. 
Twenty-sixth  Administration,  18S9-1893.     The  Re- 
publican Party  in    Power.      McKinley  Tariff    Bill, 
with  Reciprocity.     Chicago  Columbian  Exposition. 
Beginning  of  New  Navy,       ....     280 

CHAPTER  XXVIII. 
Twenty-seventh  Administration,  1893-1897.  The 
Democratic  Party  in  Power.  Repeal  of  Sherman 
Silver  Act  and  Federal  Election  Laws.  Wilson 
Tariff  Bill.  Coal  and  Railroad  Strikes.  Venezuelan 
Boundary  Dispute.     Relations  with  Spain  and  Cuba,     290 

Appendix  A.     Articles  of  Confederation,  .  .     304 

Appendix  B.     The  Constitution,  .  .  .     319 

Appendix  C.     Admission  of  the  States,  .  .     348 

Appendix  D.     Summary  of  Popular  and  Electoral  Votes 

in  Presidential  Elections,  1789-1888,  .  .     349 

Appendix  E.     Population  of  the  Sections,  1 790-1 860,     358 
Appendix  F.     Congressional  Representation  of  the  Sec- 
tions, 1 790-1860.       .....     359 

Appendix  G.     The  Sections  in  1870,  1880  and  1890,     .     360 
Appendix  H.     Cabinet  Officers  of  the  Administrations,     363 


Index, 


375 


SI. 


iV 


INTRODUCTION. 

'  450 

1.  The  government  of  the  United  States,  in  its 
original  form  (in  1777),  was  an  extreme  Democracy, 
whose  controlling  principle  was  the  complete  inde- 
pendence of  separate  communities.  Those  who 
opposed  its  change  to  a  Representative  Republic 
(in  1787)  were  generally  distinguished  afterwards 
by  a  desire  that  the  Constitution  then  adopted 
should  be  construed  or  interpreted  strictly  accora 
ing  to  its  terms,  and  I'lat  ingenious  interpretations 
of  its  provisions  shouid  not  give  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment any  further  stretch  of  power.  The  party 
which  was  thus  founded,  and  which  has  retained 
the  name  of  Democratic-Republican  even  to  our 
own  day,  has  therefore  usually  been  called  the 
Strict  Constructionist  party. 

2.  On  the  other  hand  the  successive  parties  which 
have  opposed  the  Strict  Constructionist  view,  and 
have  endeavored  to  carry  the  government  still  fur- 
ther from  its  originally  extreme  democratic  form, 
have  generally  been  distinguished  by  a  desire  that 


2  American  Politics. 

the  Constitution  should  be  interpreted  loosely  and 
broadly,  so  as  to  give  the  Federal  Government  in- 
creased power  in  various  matters  of  national  impor- 
tance. They  have  therefore  usually  been  called 
Loose  Constructionist,  or  Broad  Construc- 
tionist, parties.'  Their  policy  has  necessarily 
been  one  of  attack,  and  each  of  them  has,  in  the 
main,  been  successful  in  securing  a  general  accept- 
ance by  the  whole  country  of  the  principle  upon 
which  its  formation  was  based." 

3.  This  question  of  a  strict  or  a  loose  construc- 
tion of  the  Constitution  has  always  been  at  the 
root  of  legitimate  national  party  differences  in  the 
United  States.  All  other  pretended  distinctions 
have  been  either  local  and  temporary,  or  selfish  and 
misleading,  and  the  general  acceptance  of  any  such 
party  difference  would  mark  an  unfortunate  decline 
in  the  political  intelligence  of  the  people. 

1  It  must  not  be  imagined,  however,  that  any  party  has  ever  called  itself 
"  The  Strict  Constructionist  Party,"  or  "  The  Loose  Constructionist 
Party."     These  names  are  used  as  descriptions,  not  as  titles. 

2  The  Federalists  succeeded  in  forming  a  stronger  Central  Government ; 
the  Whigs  in  maintaining  for  the  Central  Government  the  power  of  making 
certain  Internal  Improvements  at  national  expense  ;  and  the  Republicans 
in  maintaining  for  the  Central  Government  the  power  of  abolishing  Slavery 
(first  in  the  Territories,  and  afterwards  in  the  States  also),  of  coercing  a 
rebellious  State,  and  of  protecting  the  slaves  when  set  free.  The  power  of 
the  Central  Government  to  lay  Protective  Duties  on  imports,  and  to  or- 
ganize a  national  banking  system,  was  maintained  for  a  time  by  the  Whigs, 
and  revived  and  carried  into  effect  by  the  Republicans. 


CHAPTER  I. 

ORIGIN     OF     POLITICAL     PARTIES     IN     THE      UNITED 
STATES. 

I.  Political  Parties  in  the  United  States  had 
no  real  existence  until  the  revohition  which  dis- 
solved allegiance  to  Great  Britain.  Most  of  the 
colonies  were  under  royal  or  proprietary  govern- 
ments, in  some  of  which  there  was  a  deliberative 
assembly.  But  in  none  of  these  did  the  people 
have  such  an  influence  upon  the  government  as 
would  have  given  to  their  differences  of  political 
opinion  the  distinction  of  party  membership.  In 
the  New  England  Colonies  the  opportunities 
for  the  formation  of  parties  were  greater.  The 
immigrants  in  this  section  of  America  had  brought 
with  them  the  town  system  of  local  government, 
and  had  left  behind  them  the  strong  central  power 
which  had  held  it  in  check  in  England.  They  had 
also  the  good  fortune,  or  the  political  foresight,  to 
obtain  charters  from  the  king,  by  which  they  were 
allowed  to  exercise  powers  of  government  denied 
to  the  other  colonies.  To  these  charters  they  clung 
3 


4  American  Politics.       \Circa  1760 

with  tenacity,  and  their  distance  from  England 
made  it  difficult  for  the  king  to  overcome  their 
stubborn  resistance  to  his  endeavors  to  withdraw, 
the  gift,  when  its  results  had  roused  his  suspicion 
and  dislike.  The  consequence  was  the  establish- 
ment in  New  England  of  a  multitude  of  petty 
towns,  each  a  pure  democracy.  In  these  were  put 
in  practice  without  question  the  principles  of  per- 
sonal liberty,  trial  by  jury,  the  voting  of  taxes  by 
the  people,  and  the  responsibility  of  public  officials 
to  the  people,  for  which  all  the  sufcceeding  years, 
and  a  great  expenditure  of  blood  and  money,  have 
hardly  been  able  to  secure  recognition  elsewhere. 
But  the  questions  debated  and  decided  n  these 
petty  democracies,  or  even  in  the  larger  colonial 
assemblies,  were  not  such  as  give  rise  to  settled 
differences  of  opinion  and  political  parties.  For 
these  a  broader  field  was  necessary. 

2.  This  principle  of  Popular  Sovereignty  had 
spread  rapidly  from  the  townships  to  the  collective 
New  England  colonies,  but  was  longer  in  influenc- 
ing the  colonies  to  the  southward.  It  was  not 
until  about  the  year  1760  that  this  work  can  be 
considered  accomplished.  By  that  time  most  of 
the  thinking  men  in  the  colonies  agreed  in  believ- 
ing that  in  the  colonies  rested  the  right  to  govern 
themselves.  The  principle  had  been  repeatedly 
announced  in  theory  before  revolution  was  thought 
of,  but  personal  loyalty  to  the  king,  pride  in  the 
name  of  Englishman,  and  the  infrequent  exercise 


1776-]  Whig  and  Tory,  5 

by  England  of  her  asserted  rights  of  absolute 
dominion  over  her  colonies,  permitted  it  to  lie  dor- 
mant. In  the  year  1760  the  financial  necessities 
of  England  drove  her  into  a  fifteen  years'  intermit- 
tent endeavor  to  govern  the  colonies  without  their 
consent.  The  attempt  at  once  awakened  the  prin- 
ciple of  popular  sovereignty,  and  the  continuing 
contest  increased  the  extent  of  its  acceptance,  until 
it  became  strong  enough  to  overcome  the  forces 
which  had  hitherto  held  it  in  check. 

3.  During  this  period  of  contest  the  English 
party  names,  Whig  and  Tory,  became  naturalized 
in  America.  Their  use  at  first  was  only  nominal, 
for  those  who  claimed  them  had  no  power  to  in- 
fluence the  course  of  government.  Lord  North  and 
his  Tory  ministry  and  party,  being  in  power  and  in 
need  of  money,  advocated  repressive  and  coercive 
measures  toward  the  insubordinate  colonies,  and 
these  were  naturally  opposed  by  the  Whigs,  the 
|Darty  in  opposition.  The  name  of  Whig,  therefore, 
became  more  popular  yearly  in  the  colonies,  and 
was  the  boast  of  thousands  whose  only  claim  to  it 
lay  in  their  gratitude  to  the  real  Whigs  in  England. 

4.  The  successive  Congresses  of  delegates  from 
the  different  colonies,  which  gradually  learned  to 
exercise  all  the  functions  of  government,  to  form  an 
army  and  navy,  to  organize  a  post-office  depart- 
ment, and  to  raise  money  for  national  purposes, 
were  recognized  and  attended  only  by  the  so-called 
American  Whigs.      Therefore,   although   they 


6  American  Politics.  {.^77^ 

offered  no  opportunity  for  party  contests,  they  at 
least  gave  the  American  Whigs  an  influence,  whether 
rightful  or  usurped,  upon  the  course  of  government, 
and  thus  made  them  the  first  American  political 
party.  As  soon  as  independence  was  announced, 
in  1776,  to  be  the  final  object  of  the  contest,  the 
names  Whig  and  Tory  lost,  in  America,  whatever 
of  British  significance  they  had  ever  possessed. 
One  who  espoused  the  cause  of  the  revolted  colo- 
nies was  called  a  Whig,  and  one  who  still  clung  to 
the  mother  country  and  the  crown  was  called  a 
Tory.  The  Tory  party  was  finally  abolished  at 
the  close  of  the  Revolution,  when  the  triumphant 
Whigs  confiscated  the  estates  of  its  more  active 
members,  and  compelled  their  owners  to  emigrate. 
5.  Before  the  end  of  the  year  1776  most  of  the 
States  had  settled  their  forms  of  State  government. 
These  were  generally  such  adaptations  of  the  old 
colonial  governments  as  the  altered  condition  of 
affairs  seemed  to  demand.  But  there  was  greater 
difficulty  in  settling  a  collective  government  for  all 
the  States.  The  idea  of  popular  sovereignty,  of 
local  government,  had  spread  from  the  township  to 
the  county,  and  from  the  county  to  the  colony, 
without  evil  results.  But  the  difficulty  of  inter- 
communication, and  the  diversity  of  local  interests, 
caused  each  State  to  regard  the  others  as,  in  great 
measure,  foreign  soil.  And,  now  that  a  Confeder- 
acy was  to  be  formed,  the  determination  of  each 
State  to  allow  no  dictation  from  its  neighbors,  or 


1 777-]  First  Confederation.  y 

from  the  new  Federal  Government,  was  found  tD  be 
an  insuperable  barrier  against  the  formation  of  a 
close  union.  In  their  anxiety  to  be  without  a 
master  the  States  left  themselves  without  a  govern- 
ment. 

6.  The  form  of  government  for  the  new  Con- 
federacy' was  agreed  upon  in  November,  1777. 
The  Congress  was  to  be  composed  of  not  more 
than  seven,  or  less  than  two,  delegates  from  each 
State,  to  be  chosen  by  the  Legislature.  The  States 
were  to  be  equal  in  power,  each  having  but  one  vote, 
no  matter  how  great  its  population  or  wealth. 
There  was  to  be  no  President  or  other  Executive 
power,  except  committees  of  Congress.  Important 
measures  required  the  votes  of  nine  of  the  thirteen 
States,  and  amendments  required  the  votes  of  all. 
Congress  had  hardly  more  than  an  advisory  power 
at  the  best.  It  had  no  power  to  prevent  or  punish 
offenses  against  its  own  laws,  or  even  to  perform 
effectively  the  duties  enjoined  upon  it  by  the 
Articles  of  Confederation.  It  alone  could  declare 
war,  but  it  had  no  power  to  compel  the  enlistment, 
arming,  or  support  of  an  army.  It  alone  could  fix 
the  needed  amount  of  revenue,  but  the  taxes  could 
only  be  collected  by  the  States  at  their  own  pleasure. 
It  alone  could  decide  disputes  between  the  States, 
but  it  had  no  power  to  compel  either  disputant  to 
respect  or  obey  its  decisions.  It  alone  could  make 
treaties  with  foreign  nations,  but  it  had  no  power 

I  See  Appendix    A. 


8  American  Politics.  ['733 

to  prevent  individual  States  from  violating  tliem. 
Even  commerce,  foreign  and  domestic,  was  to  be 
regulated  entirely  by  the  States,  and  it  was  not  long 
before  State  selfishness  began  to  show  itself  in  the 
regulation  of  duties  on  imports.  In  everything  the 
States  were  to  be  sovereign,  and  their  creature,  the 
Federal  Government,  was  to  have  only  strength 
enough  to  bind  the  States  into  nominal  unity,  and 
only  life  enough  to  assure  it  of  its  own  practical 
impotence.  The  jealous  States  then  felt,  with  con- 
siderable satisfaction,  that  their  liberties  were  rea- 
sonably secure. 

7.  A  human  society  bound  together  by  no 
stronger  ties  than  those  provided  by  the  Articles 
of  Confederation  must  tend  naturally  to  anarchy. 
Even  during  the  War  of  Revolution  the  weakness 
of  the  government  seemed  to  many  to  portend 
financial  ruin  and  a  speedy  dissolution  of  the 
Union.  As  soon  as  the  pressure  of  war  was  re- 
moved the  symptoms  of  disintegration  grew  alarm- 
ingly worse.  Congress  had  become  a  mere  Rump, 
without  dignity,  without  power,  and  without  a  home. 
It  was  compelled  to  appeal  repeatedly  to  the  States 
before  it  could  obtain  a  quorum  of  members  to  ratify 
the  treaty  of  peace.  Many  of  the  States  refused 
or  neglected  to  pay  even  their  alloted  shares  of 
interest  upon  the  public  debt,  and  there  was  no 
power  in  Congress  to  compel  payment.  Eighteen 
months  were  required  to  collect  only  one-fifth  of 
the  taxes  assigned    to  the  States   in    1783.     The 


1785.]  Taxation. — Revision.  9 

national  credit  became  worthless.  Foreign  nations 
refused  to  make  commercial  treaties  with  the  United 
States,  preferring  a  condition  of  affairs  in  which  they 
could  lay  any  desired  burden  upon  American  com- 
merce without  fear  of  retaliation  by  an  impotent 
Congress.  The  national  standing  army  had  dwin- 
dled to  a  corps  of  eighty  men.  In  1785  Algiers 
declared  war  against  the  United  States.  Congress 
recommended  the  building  of  five  40-gun  ships  of 
war.  But  Congress  had  only  power  to  recommend. 
The  ships  were  not  built,  and  the  Algerines  were 
permitted  to  prey  on  American  commerce  with  im- 
punity. England  still  refused  to  carry  out  the 
Treaty  of  1783,  or  to  send  a  Minister  to  the  United 
States.  The  Federal  Government,  in  short,  was 
despised  abroad,  and  disobeyed  at  home. 

8.  The  apparent  remedy  was  the  possession  by 
Congress  of  the  power  of  levying  and  collecting 
internal  taxes  and  duties  on  imports,  but,  after  long 
urging,  it  was  found  impossible  to  gain  the  neces- 
sary consent  of  all  the  States  to  the  article  of  taxa- 
tion by  Congress.  In  1786,  therefore,  this  was 
abandoned,  and,  as  a  last  resort,  the  States  were 
asked  to  pass  an  Amendment  intrusting  to  Con- 
gress the  collection  of  a  revenue  from  imports. 
This  Amendment  was  agreed  to  by  all  the  States 
but  one.  New  York  alone  rejected  it,  after  long 
debate,  and  her  veto  seemed  to  destroy  the  last 
hope  of  a  continuance  of  national  union  in  America. 
Perhaps  the  dismay  caused  by  the  action  of  New 


10  American  Politics.  {.^7^7 

York  was  the  most  powerful  argument  in  the  minds 
of  many  for  an  immediate  and  complete  revision  of 
the  government. 

9.  The  first  step  to  Revision  was  not  so  de- 
signed. In  1785  the  Legislatures  of  Maryland  and 
Virginia,  in  pursuance  of  their  right  to  regulate 
commerce,  had  appointed  Commissioners  to  decide 
on  some  method  of  doing  away  with  interruptions 
to  the  navigation  of  Chesapeake  Bay.  The  Com- 
missioners reported  their  inability  to  agree,  except 
in  condemning  the  Articles  of  Confederation.  The 
Legislature  of  Virginia  followed  the  report  by  a 
resolution,  inviting  the  other  States  to  meet  at  An- 
napolis, consider  the  defects  of  the  government, 
and  suggest  some  remedy.  In  September,  1786, 
delegates  from  five  of  the  Middle  States  assembled, 
but  confined  themselves  to  discussion,  since  a 
majority  of  the  States  was  not  represented.  The 
general  conclusion  was  that  the  government,  as  it 
then  stood,  was  inadequate  for  the  protection,  pro- 
sperity, or  comfort  of  the  people,  and  that  some 
immediate  and  thorough  reform  was  needed.  After 
drawing  up  a  report  for  their  States  and  for  Con- 
gress, recommending  another  convention,  to  be 
held  at  Philadelphia,  in  May,  1787,  they  adjourned. 
Congress,  by  resolution,  approved  their  report  and 
the  proposed  Convention. 

10.  The  Convention  met  as  proposed.  May 
14th,  1787,  being  composed  of  delegates  from  all 
the  States,  with  the  exception  of  Rhode  Island.    Its 


i/S/-]  The  Constitution  of  1787.  II 

proceedings  were  secret,  but  an  account  of  them 
was  afterwards  drawn  up  from  Mr.  Madison's  notes. 
Washington,  who  was  a  delegate  from  Virginia,  was 
chosen  as  presiding  officer,  and  the  Convention  de- 
cided to  transcend  the  instructions  given  to  the 
delegates,  and  form  an  entirely  new  Constitution, 
on  the  ground  that  the  work  must  finally  be  sub- 
mitted to,  and  approved  by,  the  people,  before  it 
could  go  into  effect.  May  29th,  Randolph,  of  Vir- 
ginia,'offered  the  so-called  "Virginia  plan  "  for  a 
new  government.  It  consisted  of  fifteen  points,  of 
which  the  most  important  were  that  representation 
in  the  new  Congress  should  be  proportional  to 
population,  and  that  Congress  should  have  power 
to  compel  the  States  to  fulfill  their  obligations. 
These  provisions  were  particularly  distasteful  to 
the  smaller  States,  who  preferred  the  "  New  Jersey 
plan,"  offered  by  Patterson,  of  New  Jersey,  which 
continued  the  old  Confederation,  but  with  the  ad- 
ditional power  to  regulate  commerce,  and  to  raise 
a  revenue.  By  this  plan  the  smaller  and  larger 
States  would  still  have  been  equal  in  power.  June 
19th  the  Convention  rejected  the  New  Jersey  plan, 
and  took  up  that  of  Virginia  for  consideration. 
After  a  long  debate  a  compromise  was  made.  The 
smaller  States  agreed  to  take  a  proportional  share 
in  the  lower  of  tivo  Houses  of  Congress,  in  return 
for  an  equal  share  in  an  upper  House.  The  ques- 
tion of  omitting  or  including  slaves  in  reckoning 
population  as  a  basis  for  representation  was  com- 


12  American  Politics,  {}7^T 

promised  by  agreeing  to  estimate  them  as  equal  to 
three-fifths  of  the  same  number  of  whites.  The 
friends  and  enemies  of  the  slave-trade  agreed  not 
to  prohibit  it  until  1808.  Other  debatable  ques- 
tions were  adjusted  in  the  same  spirit,  and  in  Sep- 
tember, 1787,  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States 
was  completed,'  being,  like  all  other  sound  and 
lasting  political  works,  the  result  of  wise,  judicious, 
and  even-handed  compromise. 

11'.  Any  full  discussion  of  The  Constitution 
of  1787  must  be  left  to  the  treatises  upon  it.  But 
there  are  some  points  which  require  notice,  in  view 
of  party  action  upon  them.  Unquestionably  the 
most  important  creation  of  the  Constitution  was 
The  Federal  Judiciary.  It  will  be  seen  that  the 
only  guarantee  for  the  observance  of  the  Articles  of 
Confederation  was  the  n^ktd  promise  of  the  States. 
This  had  been  found  to  be  utterly  worthless.  The 
creation  of  a  system  of  United  States  Courts,  ex- 
tending throughout  the  States,  and  empowered  to 
define  the  boundaries  of  Federal  authority,  and  to 
enforce  its  decisions  by  Federal  power,  supplied 
the  element  needed  to  bring  order  out  of  chaos. 
Without  it  the  Constitution  might  easily  have 
proved  a  more  disheartening  and  complete  failure 
than  the  Articles  of  Confederation. 

12.  How  far  The  New  Federal  Government 
succeeded  to  the  sovereign  rights  of  the  States  and 
formed   a  centralized  government    in    their    place 

:  See  Appendix  B,  where  the  Confederation  is  compared  with  it. 


1787.]        Nature  of  the  Constitution.  13 

each  must  decide  for  himself  by  a  study  of  the  Con- 
stitution, and  on  his  decision  will  depend  generally 
his  party  membership.  All  agree  that  the  new 
Federal  Government  succeeded  to  at  least  a  part 
of  the  sovereign  rights  previously  vested  in  the 
States,  that  the  Federal  Government  thus  obtained 
what  it  had  previously  lacked,  the  power  over  indi- 
viduals, and  that,  within  the  sphere  abandoned  to 
it,  the  Federal  Government  is  supreme.  How  far 
that  sphere  extends  is,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  always 
will  be,  a  great  party  question.  The  very  Pre- 
amble, "  we,  the  people  of  the  United  States,"  has 
been  construed  by  one  party  as  an  assertion  that 
the  Constitution  was  adopted  by  the  people  of  each 
State  for  itself^  and  by  the  opposite  party  as  an- 
nouncing the  consolidation  of  discordant  states  into 
one  powerful  nation,  not  a  mere  league.  All  agree 
that  it  was  intended  ^'to  form  a  more  perfect 
union,"  but  all  do  not  agree  as  to  how  nearly  per- 
fect that  union  was  to  be. 

13.  The  Powers  Granted  to  Congress  in 
Article  I,  §  8,  should  be  carefully  studied,  for  the 
antagonistic  views  of  the  Strict  Constructionist  and 
Loose  Constructionist  parties  have  always  been 
most  clearly  shown  in  interpreting  them.  For  in- 
stance, under  the  clauses  which  give  Congress  the 
power  to  establish  post-roads,  and  to  provide  for 
the  common  defense,  Loose  Constructionists  have 
claimed,  and  Strict  Constructionists  have  denied, 
that   Congress   has   power  to   appropriate    public 


14  American  Politics.  {M'^I 

money  for  the  building  of  roads,  and  for  general 
internal  improvements.  There  is  hardly  a  clause 
in  this  whole  section  upon  whose  interpretation  and 
application  the  members  of  opposite  parties  agree, 
except  when  impelled  to  do  so  by  selfish  interests. 

14.  Is  the  Union  a  federal,  or  league,  govern- 
ment, as  claimed  by  the  Strict  Constructionists,  or 
a  centralized  national  government,  as  claimed  by 
the  Loose  Constructionists  ?  The  question  may 
best  be  answered  in  the  words  of  Mr.  Madison  : 
"  The  Constitution  is,  in  strictness,  neither  a  na- 
tional nor  a  federal  constitution,  but  a  composi- 
tion of  both.  In  its  foundation  it  is  federal,  not 
national  ;  in  the  sources  from  which  the  ordinary 
powers  of  the  government  are  drawn  it  is  partly 
federal  and  partly  national  ;  in  the  operation  of 
these  powers  it  is  national,  not  federal ;  in  the  extent 
of  them,  igain,  it  is  federal,  not  national  ;  and, 
finally,  in  the  authoritative  mode  of  introducing 
A,nendments  it  is  neither  wholly  federal,  nor  wholly 
national." 

15.  Only  thirty-nine  of  the  fifty-five  delegates  to 
the  Convention  signed  the  Constitution,  and  it  can- 
not truly  be  said  that  it  really  satisfied  any  one. 
Had  it  been  entirely  satisfactory  to  one  great  party, 
it  would  have  been  intoleraWe  to  the  other.  But  it 
was  a  compromise  in  every  important  particular, 
and  each  party,  while  lamenting  its  own  conces- 
sions, could  derive  some  satisfaction  from  consider- 
ing those  of  its  adversaries.     For,  on  the  question 


1787.]  Tivo  National  Parties,  15 

of  its  adoption,  the  people  of  the  United  States 
had  at  last  divided  into  opposing  parties,  Feder- 
alists and  Anti-federalists,  though  both  parties 
varied  these  formal  titles  by  the  use  of  such  spite- 
ful and  opprobrious  epithets  as  party  hatred  so  well 
knows  how  to  invent  and  apply. 
-  16.  The  extreme  Federalists  were  anxious  for 
a  strong  government,  and,  if  possible,  for  a  mon- 
archy. During  the  secret  proceedings  of  the  Con- 
vention the  report  was  common  that  the  "  high-fly- 
ing "  Federalists  had  induced  it  to  call  an  English 
prince  to  the  throne  of  the  United  States.  The 
great  mass  of  the  party,  however,  had  no  such  de- 
sire. They  despised  the  Confederacy  as  a  mere 
''  rope  of  sand,"  which  would  fall  apart  at  the  first 
shock,  and  leave  the  separate  States  to  become  the 
successive  prey  of  a  foreign  enemy,  or  of  each 
other.  In  place  of  it  they  wished  to  see.'',  strong 
republican  government,  fitted  to  make  itself  re- 
spected abroad,  and  obeyed  at  home.  In  support- 
ing the  new  Constitution  the  Federalists  were  aided 
by  many  who  were  their  natural  opponents,  but 
who  either  despaired  of  anything  better,  or  were 
influenced  by  respect  for  the  great  names  appended 
to  or  favoring  it. 

^  17.  The  extreme  Anti-federalists  wished  for 
no  Federal  Government  whatever,  but  for  a  con- 
tinuance of  the  league  between  thirteen  indepen- 
dent republics.  The  great  mass  of  the  party  were 
united    only   in   opposing   the    new    Constitution, 


l6  American  Politics,  [1788 

« 
which  seemed  to  them  fantastic  and  experimental, 

and  a  fit  instrument  to  deprive  the  States  of  the 
liberties  which  they  had  gained  by  the  sword.  But 
no  definite  and  united  line  of  action  was  taken  by 
the  Anti-federahsts.  Many  of  them  united  with 
the  Federalists  in  accepting  and  voting  for  the 
Constitution,  but  with  the  hope  and  expectation  of 
future  amendments.  The  whole  party  in  a  few 
years  became  a  Strict  Constructionist  party,  accept- 
ing the  Constitution  unreservedljy,  but  aiming  to 
confine  the  powers  of  the  Federal  Government  to 
the  letter  of  its  terms. 

18.  September  17th,  1787,  the  new  Constitution 
was  transmitted  to  Congress  and  thence  referred  to 
Conventions  of  the  several  States  for  adoption  or 
rejection.  The  opposition  was  chiefly  in  the  great 
States  of  New  York,  Virginia,  and  Massachusetts, 
but  was  shown  in  varying  degrees  in  all  the  Con- 
ventions. Many  of  the  States  followed  the  "■  Mas- 
sachusetts plan,"  adopting  the  Constitution,  but 
strongly  recommending  amendments  to  it.  Even 
with  this  expedient,  it  was  only  adopted  by  votes  of 
31  to  29  in  New  York,  88  to  80  in  Virginia,  and 
187  to  168  in  Massachusetts.  North  Carolina  and 
Rhode  Island  at  first  rejected,  but  more  than  a  year 
afterward  adopted  it,  their  ratifications  only  reach- 
ing Congress  in  1790. 

19.  According  to  the  terms  of  the  Constitution, 
it  was  to  go  into  effect  as  soon  as  adopted  by 
nine  States.     The  contests  between  Federalists  and 


i788.]  The  Constitution  Adopted.  \J 

Anti-federalists  lasted  for  months.  A  noble  relic 
of  the  controversy  is  the  series  of  papers  written  by 
Hamilton,  Jay,  and  Madison,  over  the  joint  signa- 
ture of  Publius,  explaining  and  defending  the  Con- 
stitution. They  are  known  collectively  as  The 
Federalist.  It  Was  not  until  June  21st,  1788,  that  \ 
the  ninth  State  ratified  the  Constitution,  and  it  be- 
came an  accomplished  fact.  New  York  and  Vir- 
ginia soon  afterward  ratified  it,  and  only  North 
Carolina  and  Rhode  Island  refused.  July  14th, 
1788,  the  Congress  of  the  Confederacy,  which  was 
in  session,  referred  the  ratifications  received  from 
nine  States  to  a  committee  which  reported  a  reso- 
lution for  carrying  the  new  government  into  effect. 
There  was  some  difficulty  in  deciding  upon  a  time 
and  place  of  meeting  for  the  new  Congress,  but  it 
was  finally  fixed  at  New  York,  March  4th,  1789. 
The  first  Wednesday  of  January,  1789,  was  ap- 
pointed for  the  choice  of  electors  for  President  and 
Vice-President,  and  the  first  Wednesday  in  Febru- 
ary for  the  voting  of  the  electors. 

20.  The  Constitution  has  always  been  plain 
enough  to  guide  the  policy  of  the  statesman  and 
the  decisions  of  the  judge,  and  yet  elastic  enough 
to  give  full  play  to  honest  differences  of  opinion 
and  party  contest,  and  to  fit  the  body  politic  at  any 
time  during  its  growth  from  3,000,000  to  60,000,000 
inhabitants.  The  first  eleven  Amendments  were 
added  so  soon  after  its  adoption  that  they  may 
fairly  be  considered  a  part  of  the  original  instru- 


18  American  Politics.  [i7^S 

ment.  It  was  then  complete,  and,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  change  in  the  manner  of  voting  for 
President  and  Vice-President,  after  the  disputed 
election  of  1800,  no  further  alteration  was  found 
necessary  until  the  extirpation  of  Slavery  intro- 
duced three  Amendments  which  would  have  been 
impracticable  in  1787.  Even  now,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  old  torment  of  the  Presidential  election, 
there  is  seldom  any  serious  suggestion  of  a  point  in 
which  the  Constitution  would  be  benefited  by  a 
revision.  Its  wheels  move  as  smoothly  to-day  as 
at  any  time  since  the  inauguration  of  the  first 
President.  Their  motion  is  so  quiet  that  we  are 
usually  unconscious  of  our  own  comfort.  The  tests 
of  foreign  and  civil  war,  of  bitter  party  and  per- 
sonal contests,  of  financial  convulsion  and  an  un- 
paralleled prosperity,  have  tried  and  approved  it. 
The  stability  of  oui  own  government,  compared 
with  the  radical  changes  in  those  of  every  other 
civilized  nation  during  the  past  ninety  years,  is  an 
honorable  memorial  of  the  political  wisdom  of  the 
men  who  framed  the  Constitution  of  1787,  and 
of  their  descendants  who  have  expounded  and 
obeyed  it. 


CHAPTER    II. 

FIRST  ADMINISTRATION,   1789-1793. 

George  WasMneton,  President.  John  Adams,  Vice-President, 

1st  and  lid  Congresses . 

I.  ;March  4th,  1789,  had  been  appointed  for  the 
1st  Congress,  formal  inauguration  of  the  new 
Extra  Session.  Government,  but  the  members 
elect  had  not  yet  unlearned  the  Confederacy's 
slovenly  habits.  It  was  not  until  April  6th  that  a 
sufficient  number  of  members  of  Congress  arrived 
in  New  York  to  form  a  quorum  and  count  the  elec- 
toral votes.  At  that  time,  and  until  1805,  no  elec- 
toral votes  were  cast  distinctively  for  President  and 
Vice-President.  Each  elector  voted  by  ballot  for 
two  persons.  If  a  majority  of  all  the  votes  were 
cast  for  any  person,  he  who  received  the  greatest 
number  of  votes  became  President,  and  he  who 
received  the  next  greatest  number  became  Vice- 
President.  When  the  votes  were  counted  in  1789 
they  were  found  to  be,  for  George  Washington, 
of  Virginia,  69  (each  of  the  electors  having  given 
him  one  vote),  for  John  Adams,  of  Massa- 
19 


20  Americaji  Politics,  [i/^Q 

chusetts,  34,  and  35  for  various  other  candidates. 
Washington  received  notice  of  his  election,  and, 
after  a  triumphal  progress  northward  from  his  home 
at  Mount  Vernon,  was  sworn  into  office  April  30th. 
The  Vice-President  had  taken  his  place  as  presid- 
ing officer  of  the  Senate  a  few  days  before. 

2.  Frederick  A.  Muhlenberg,  of  Pennsylvania, 
was  chosen  Speaker  of  the  House,  but  the  vote  had 
no  party  divisions,  for  Parties  were  still  in  a  state 
of  utter  confusion.  Between  the  extreme  Anti-fed- 
eralists, who  considered  the  Constitution  a  long 
step  toward  a  despotism,  and  the  extreme  Federal- 
ists, who  desired  a  monarchy  modeled  on  that  of 
England,  there  were  all  varieties  of  political  opinion. 
The  union  between  the  moderate  members  of  both 
parties  in  support  of  the  new  form  of  government 
still  existed.  The  extreme  importance  of  Washing- 
ton lay  in  his  ability,  through  the  universal  confi- 
dence in  his  integrity  and  good  judgment,  to  hold 
together  this  alliance  of  moderate  men  for  a  time, 
aud  to  prevent  party  contest  upon  the  interpreta- 
tion of  Federal  powers  until  the  Constitution  should 
show  its  merit  and  be  assured  of  existence. 

3.  The  President  selected  his  Cabinet  with  a 
careful  regard  to  the  opposite  opinions  of  his  sup- 
porters. The  Treasury  Department  was  given  to 
Alexander  Hamilton,  of  New  York,  a  Federalist, 
and  a  lawyer  of  distinguished  ability,  who  had 
served  with  credit  in  the  Revolutionary  War,  and 
was  considered  the  ablest  man  of  his  party.     The 


1789.]         Cabinet,— ''  Bill  of  Rightsr  21 

War  Department  was  given  to  General  Henry] 
Knox,  of  Massachusetts,  also  a  Federalist.  The 
State  Department  was  given  to  Thomas  Jefferson, 
of  Virginia,  an  Anti-federalist.  He  was  the  author 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  and  had  the 
confidence  of  all  the  factions  of  his  divided  party. 
Edmund  Randolph,  of  Virginia,  also  an  Anti-fed- 
eralist, was  appointed  Attorney-General,  and  John 
Jay,  of  New  York,  a  Federalist,  Chief  Justice  of 
the  SupremiC  Court. 

.  4.  Twelve  Amendments  were  adopted  by  this 
Session  of  Congress,  in  order  to  meet  the  consci- 
entious objections  of  many  moderate  Anti-feder- 
alists, and  to  take  the  place  of  a  "  Bill  of  Rights." 
Ten  of  these,  having  received  the  assent  of  the 
irecessary  number  of  States,  became  a  part  of  the 
Constitution,  and  now  stand  the  first  ten  of  the 
Amendments.  They  were  intended  to  guarantee 
freedom  of  religion,  speech,  person,  and  property. 
The  positive  requests  of  so  many  States,  and  the 
continued  refusal  of  two  States  to  enter  the  Union, 
were  strong  incentives  to  their  adoption,  and  the 
opposition  to  them  came  mainly  from  the  extreme 
Anti-federalists,  who  considered  them  delusive  and 
insufficient,  and  only  calculated  to  create  a  fatal 
feeling  of  security  against  centralized  government, 
5.  The  most  important  work  of  this  Session  was 
the  Regulation  of  Commerce  and  the  settle- 
ment of  a  Tariff.  During  the  debate  some  of  the 
Anti-federalists  made  an  attempt  to  arrange  the 


22  American  Politics.  [1789 

duties  so  as  to  discriminate  against  England  and  in 
favor  of  other  nations,  but  the  attempt  failed  in  the 
Senate.  A  Tariff  Act  was  passed  by  both  Houses, 
and  approved  July  4th.  Its  preamble  stated  one 
of  its  objects  to  be  "the  encouragement  and  pro- 
tection of  manufactures."  This  language  is  notable 
as  stating  the  main  object  of  the  "  American,"  or 
High  Protective  Tariff,  system,  thirty  years  before 
it  became  a  party  tenet.  After  directing  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury  to  prepare  a  plan  for  the  set- 
tlement of  the  public  debt,  Congress  adjourned 
September  29th,  until  the  following  January.  In 
November,  1789,  North  Carolina  finally  ratified 
the  Constitution,  and  entered  the  Union. 

6.  Congress  met  at  Philadelphia,  January  4th, 
1st  Congress,     1790.      January    9th     Hamilton 

1st  Session,  offered  his  famous  Report  on 
the  Settlement  of  the  Public  Debt.  It  con->^ 
sisted  of  three  recommendations, — first,  that  the 
foreign  debt  of  the  Confederacy  should  be  assumed 
and  paid  in  full  ;  second,  that  the  domestic  debt  of 
the  Confederacy,  which  had  fallen  far  below  par 
and  had  become  a  synonym  for  worthlessness, 
should  also  be  paid  at  its  par  value  ;  and  third,  that 
the  debts  incurred  by  the  States  during  the  Revolu- 
tion, and  still  unpaid,  should  be  assumed  and  paid 
in  full  by  the  Federal  Government. 

7.  Hamilton's  First  recommendation  was  adopt- 
ed unanimously.  The  Second  was  opposed,  even 
by  Madison  and  many  moderate  Anti-federalists,  on 


I790-]  The  Public  Debt.  23 

the  ground  that  the  domestic  debt  was  held  by 
speculators,  who  had  bought  it  at  a  heavy  discount, 
and  would  thus  gain  usurious  interest  on  their 
investment.  Hamilton's  supporters  argued  that,  if 
only  for  that  reason,  they  should  be  paid  in  full,  that 
holders  of  United  States  securities  might  learn  not 
to  sell  them  at  a  discount,  and  that  the  national 
credit  might  thus  be  strengthened  for  all  time  to 
come.  After  long  debate  the  second  recommend- 
ation was  also  adopted. 

^  8.  Hamilton's  Third  recommendation  involved 
a  question  of  the  powers  of  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment. It  therefore  for  the  first  time  united  all  the 
Anti-federalists  in  opposition  to  it.  They  feared  that 
the  ''  rope  of  sand  "  of  the  Confederacy  was  being 
carried  to  the  opposite  extreme  ;  that  the  *'  money 
power"  would,  by  this  measure,  be  permanently 
attached  to  the  Federal  Government ;  and  that  the 
States  would  be  made  of  no  importance.  But  even 
this  recommendation  was  adopted,  though  only  by 
a  vote  of  31  to  26  in  the  House.  A  few  days  later, 
however,  the  Anti-federalists  received  a  reinforce- 
ment of  seven  newly  arrived  North  Carolina  mem- 
bers. The  third  resolution  was  at  once  considered, 
and  voted  down  by  a  majority  of  two. 

9.  Hamilton  secured  the  final  adoption  of  the 
third  resolution  by  a  bargain  which  excited  the 
deep  indignation  of  the  Anti-federalists.  A  Na- 
tional Capital  was  to  be  selected.  The  Federal- 
ists agreed  to  vote  that  it  should  be  fixed  upon  the 


24  American  Politics,  [1790 

Potomac  River,  after  remaining  ten  years  in  Phila- 
delpliia,  and  two  Anti-federalist  members  from  the 
Potomac  agreed  in  return  to  vote  for  the  third 
resolution,  which  was  then  finally  adopted.  Ham- 
ilton's entire  report  was  thus  successful.  Its 
immediate  effects  were  to  appreciate  the  credit  of 
the  United  States,  and  to  enrich  the  holders  of  the 
Continental  debt.  Its  further  effect  was  to  make 
Hamilton  so  much  disliked  by  Anti-federalists  that, 
despite  his  acknowledged  talents,  his  party  never 
ventured  to  nominate  him  for  any  elective  office. 
Congress  adjourned  August  12th,  1790.  During 
this  long  Session  there  was  no  further  decided  party 
contest.  In  May  Rhode  Island  ratified  the  Con- 
stitution, and  entered  the  Union,  which  now  in- 
cluded all  the  old  thirteen  colonies. 

10.  Congress  met  December  6th,  1790.  Its  de- 
ist  Congress,     bates  were  mostly  on    finance. 

2d  Session.  Hamilton  proposed  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  National  Bank,  to  act  as  financial 
agent  of  the  Government.  This  involved  another 
question  of  Federal  powers,  and  renewed  party 
contest.  The  Federalists  claimed  that  Congress, 
having  the  undoubted  power  to  pass  all  laws  neces- 
sary for  the  collection  of  revenue  and  taxes,  might 
constitutionally  charter  a  bank  for  that  purpose. 
The  Anti-federalists  claimed  that  such  a  bank  was 
not  ?tecessar}>  .though  it  might  be  cojivenient^  and 
hence  was  beyond  the  power  of  Congress.  This 
difference  of  opinion,  trivial  at  first  sight,  continued 


1 791 -J  The  National  Bank.  25 

to  be  the  subject  of  bitter  party  feeling,  at  inter- 
vals, for  fifty  years.  The  bill  passed  both  Houses, 
and  the  President  was  importuned  to  veto  it.  He 
demanded  the  written  opinions  of  his  Cabinet.  In 
the  struggles  of  succeeding  years  upon  the  same 
subject,  Hamilton's  argument  in  favor  of  the  con- 
stitutionality of  a  National  Bank  has  hardly  been 
improved  upon,  or  added  to.  It  prevailed  in  the 
mind  of  the  President  over  those  of  Jefferson  and 
Randolph,  and  he  signed  the  bill.'  At  this  Session 
the  unpopular  Excise  Law,  to  provide  funds  for  the 
debts  assumed  by  the  Government,  passed  both 
Houses  against  the  opposition  of  most  of  the  Anti- 
federalists.  Congress  adjourned  March  3d,  1791. 
March  4th,  Vermont,  formerly  called  the  New 
Hampshire  Grants,  whose  people  had  for  many 
years  resisted  New  York's  claim  of  jurisdiction  over 
them,  and  had  claimed  to  be  an  independent  repub- 
lic, entered  the  Union. 

II.  Congress  met  October  24th,  1791,     Jonathan 

lid  Congress,     Trumbull;  of   Connecticut,  was 

1st  Session.       chosen  Speaker  of   the   House. 

The  number  of  Federalists  was  slightly   reduced, 

but  the  Administration  was  supported  generally  by 

I  The  Bank,  thus  created,  continued  in  existence  until  1811,  when  the  op- 
posite party  was  in  power  and  refused  to  recharter  it.  Another  National 
Bank  was  chartered  in  1816,  became  the  object  of  violent  attack  by  Strict 
Constructionists,  and  ceased  to  exist  in  1836.  Other  attempts  were  made 
without  success,  by  Loose  Constructionists,  to  charter  a  National  Bank,  and 
the  project  slept  until  1862.  During  the  Rebellion  (1861-1865)  the  so- 
called  Greenback  Currency  was  really  an  assumption  of  the  power  to  make 
forced  loans. 


26  American  Politics,  [^792 

a  large  majority  of  both  parties.  The  Anti-federal- 
ists opposed  an  increase  of  the  army  and  of  the 
Tariff,  but  both  bills  became  law.  An  Apportion- 
ment Bill  was  also  passed  at  this  Session,  which  had 
no  party  interest.  It  increased  the  number  of  the 
House  of  Representatives  to  105.  Congress  ad- 
journed May  8th,  1792.  June  ist  Kentucky,  for- 
merly a  part  of  the  State  of  Virginia,  entered  the 
Union, 

12.  Party  Organization  maybe  considered  as 
fairly  begun  about  the  close  of  this  Session.  The 
occasional  irritation  shown  in  the  debates  is  an  evi- 
dence that  the  first  ill-defined  estimate  of  the  new 
scheme  of  government  was  giving  way  to  positive 
and  settled  opinions  of  its  powers,  and  of  the  policy 
which  should  be  followed  in  managing  it.  It  is 
probable  that  a  majority  of  the  American  people 
were  Anti-federalist  in  1789,  although  the  Federal- 
ists, by  the  active  assistance  of  many  of  their  natu- 
ral opponents,  had  gained  the  Executive,  the  Sen- 
ate, the  House,  the  Judiciary,  and  most  of  the  State 
Legislatures,  and  were  able  to  defeat  the  disagree- 
ing factions  known  collectively  as  Anti-federalists. 
In  1792  affairs  were  beginning  to  settle  into  a  more 
natural  order.  The  various  Anti-federalist  factions, 
by  union  in  resisting  the  Federalists,  had  learned 
to  forget  minor  differences,  and  had  been  welded 
into  one  party  which  only  lacked  a  name.  That  of 
Anti-federalist  was  no  longer  applicable,  for  its  op- 
position to  the  Federal  Union  had  entirely  ceased. 


1792.]  Party  Nantes.  27 

13.  A  name  was  supplied  by  Jefferson,  the  recog- 
nized leader  of  the  party,  after  the  French  Revo- 
lution had  fairly  begun  its  course.  That  political 
convulsion  had,  for  some  time  after  1789,  the  sym- 
pathy of  both  Federalists  and  Anti-federalists,  for 
it  seemed  the  direct  outgrowth  of  the  American 
Revolution.  But,  as  its  leveling  objects  became 
more  apparent,  the  Federalists  grew  cooler  and  the 
Anti-federalists  warmer  toward  it.  The  latter  took 
great  pains,  even  by  dress  and  manners,  to  show 
the  keenness  of  their  sympathy  for  the  Republicans 
of  France,  and  about  this  time  adopted  the  name 
Democratic-Republican,  which  seemed  suffi- 
ciently comprehensive  for  a  full  indication  of  their 
principles.  This  has  always  been  the  official  party 
title.  It  is  now  abbreviated  to  Democratic,  though 
the  name  Democrat  was  at  first  used  by  Federal- 
ists as  one  of  contempt,  and  the  party  called  itself 
Republican,  a  title  which  it  could  hardly  claim  with 
propriety,  for  its  tendency  has  always  been  toward 
a  democracy,  as  that  of  its  opponents  has  been  tO' 
ward  a  strong  republic.  The  name  Republican, 
therefore,  belongs  most  properly  to  its  present  pos- 
sessors (1890).  But  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  party  which  will  be  called  Republican  until 
about  1828  was  the  party  which  is  now  called 
Democratic. 

14.  The  tendency  toward  Party  Division  was 
shown  even  in  the  Cabinet.  Hamilton  and  Jeffer- 
son were   influenced   by  personal   antagonism   and 


28  Americafi  Politics.  [1792 

suspicion,  as  well  as  by  political  opposition.  In 
this,  as  in  everything  else,  they  were  the  perfect 
representatives  of  their  parties.  In  Cabinet  meet- 
ings they  were,  in  Jefferson's  own  words,  "  pitted 
against  one  another  like  game-cocks,"  to  the  great 
grief  of  the  President,  who  could  not  see  in  their 
wrangling  the  inevitable  operation  of  political  repul- 
sions, which  he  would  not  be  able  to  control  much 
longer,  either  in  the  Cabinet  or  in  the  country. 

15.  At  the  request  of  both  Federalists  and  Re- 
publicans, Washington  consented  to  serve  as  Presi- 
dent a  second  time,  so  that  only  the  Vice-Presi- 
dency was  left  as  an  object  of  party  contest.  For 
this  office  the  Federalists  supported  John  Adams, 
and  the  Anti-federalists  supported  George  Clinton, 
of  New  York.  To  have  supported  Jefferson  would 
have  cost  the  vote  of  Virginia,  whose  electors  could 
not  have  voted  for  Washington  and  Jefferson,  both 
from  Virginia.  The  Presidential  Election  took 
place  November  6th,  1792,  and  resulted  in  the  suc- 
cess of  the  Federalists. 

16.  Congress  met  November  5th,  1792.  Its  meas- 
Ild  Congress,     ures  had  reference  mainly  to  the 

2d  Session.  raising  and  expenditure  of  the 
revenue,  in  regard  to  which  the  Republicans  had 
not  yet  settled  upon  any  united  course  of  action. 
The  only  party  contest  of  the  Session  was  an  un- 
successful attempt  of  the  Republicans  to  pass  a  vote 
of  censure  upon  their  enemy  Hamilton  for  his  man- 
agement of  the  Treasury,  and  for  his  indignant  and 


1 793-]  Presidential  Election.  29 

somewhat  discourteous  language  in  a  message  to 
the  House.  In  February,  1793,  the  electoral  votes 
were  counted,  and  were  found  to  be,  for  George 
Washington  132  (each  of  the  electors  having  given 
him  one  vote),  for  John  Adams  77,  for  George 
Clinton  50,  for  Thomas  Jefferson  4,  and  for  Aaron 
Burr  I.  Washington  was  therefore  declared 
elected  President,  and  Adams  Vice-President. 
March  2di  1793,  Congress  adjourned,  and  March 
4th,  Washington  and  Adams  were  sworn  into  office. 


CHAPTER  III. 

SECOND  ADMINISTRATION,  l793-l797. 

£»eorere  Washingrton,  President.  John  Adams,  Vice-President, 

Illd  and  IVth  Congresses. 

1.  Early  in  April,  1793,  news  was  received  that 
France  had  declared  war  against  Great  Britain  and 
Holland.  It  excited  the  sympathies  of  the  Amer- 
ican people  for  their  sister  republic,  even  though 
that  republic  was  the  aggressor.  One  of  the  great 
parties  specially  affected  the  leveling  principles 
avowed  by  the  French  Republicans,  and  the  oppo- 
site party  would  not  have  objected  to  their  limited 
success.  There  was  no  open  war  party  as  yet, 
though  many  considered  the  treaty  (of  1778)  still 
in  force,  which  bound  France  and  the  United 
States  to  offensive  as  well  as  defensive  alliance. 
The  country  was  in  a  position  to  drift  easily  into 
war  as  an  ally  of  France  ;  and  many  of  its  citizens 
were  certain  to  criticise  severely  any  act  of  their 
own  government  which  seemed  unfriendly  to  the 
French  Republic. 

2.  Washington    always   deliberated   slowly   and 


1 793-]        Proclamation  of  Neutrality,  3 1 

calmly,  though  he  was  immovable  when  he  had  de- 
cided. He  consulted  his  Cabinet,  and  by  their 
unanimous  advice  determined,  notwithstanding  the 
inevitable  unpopularity  of  the  act,  to  regard  the 
former  treaty  as  nullified  by  the  change  of  govern- 
ment in  France,  and  to  issue  his  Proclamation 
of  Neutrality  between  the  French  Republic  and 
her  enemies.  The  proclamation  roused  intense 
anger.  For  the  first  time  the  extreme  Republicans, 
who  might  now  almost  be  called  the  French  party, 
assailed  the  President  personally.  He  was  ac- 
cused of  being  an  enemy  to  France  and  republican 
institutions,  of  usurping  the  functions  of  Congress 
in  the  decision  and  announcement  of  peace  and 
war,  and  of  setting  at  naught  a  solemn  treaty,  to 
whose  observance  the  faith  of  the  country  was 
pledged. 

3.  The  bitterness  of  the  pro-French  newspapers 
was  increased  by  the  arrival  of  Citizen  Genet, 
who  had  been  accredited  by  the  French  Republic 
as  Minister  to  the  United  States.  He  had  reached 
Charleston,  S.  C,  April  8th,  and,  misled  by  the 
warmth  of  his  reception,  he  entered  on  and  per- 
sisted in  a  course  which  would  only  have  been  par- 
donable if  he  had  been  still  on  French  soil.  He 
began  to  commission  cruisers  from  American 
ports,  which  captured  British  vessels  even  in  Amer- 
ican waters.  He  created  courts  for  the  trial  and 
condemnation  of  such  prizes,  and  began  to  raise 
money  and  enlist  men  for  the  service  of  France, 


32  American  Politics.  [i793 

The  British  agent  complained  of  these  violations  of 
neutrality,  and  Genet  was  informed  by  Jefferson 
that  they  must  cease.  Two  of  his  American  re- 
cruits were  arrested  and  committed  to  jail.  Against 
this  Genet  remonstrated  in  offensive  language,  and, 
making  Philadelphia  his  headquarters,  persevered 
in  breaking  the  law. 

4.  He  was  encouraged  by  the  so-called  Demo- 
cratic Clubs  which  had  been  formed  by  the  more 
violent  Republicans,  in  imitation  of  the  Jacobin 
clubs  of  France.  They  had  adopted  the  wildest 
follies  of  their  French  prototypes.  They  had 
changed  their  aristocratic  title  of  Mr.  to  Citizen, 
and  their  daughters  were  married  under  the  name 
of  Citess.  They  were  even  scandalized  by  that 
relic  of  European  aristocracy,  the  spread  eagle 
upon  public  papers,  ^'^o  Republicans  of  this  type 
the  character  and  past  services  of  Washington  were 
no  bar  to  the  severest  denunciation  of  his  conduct 
to  Genet  and  the  French  Republic. 

5.  Through  the  Summer  of  1793  the  insolence  of 
Genet  toward  the  President  and  the  Cabinet  be- 
came still  more  offensive,  and  his  subordinates  imi- 
tated their  chief.  The  French  consul  at  Boston, 
with  a  body  of  marines  from  a  French  war  vessel 
in  the  harbor,  rescued  a  libeled  vessel  from  the 
United  States  Marshal.  An  American  privateer 
under  French  colors  left  Philadelphia  in  flat  defi- 
ance of  direct  orders  from  the  Federal  Government. 
French  officers  in  Georgia  began  to  organize  expe- 


1 793-]  Hostility  to  England.  33 

ditions  against  the  American  possessions  of  Spain, 
with  which  country  France  was  now  at  war.  Fi- 
nally Chief  Justice  Jay,  and  Senator  King,  of  New 
York,  declared  over  their  signatures  in  a  New  York 
newspaper  that  Genet  had  in  private  declared  his 
intention  to  appeal  from  the  Government  to  the 
people.  To  the  astonishment  of  Genet,  who  seems 
not  to  have  been  aware  of  the  extent  to  which  free 
political  discussion  may  harmlessly  be  carried,  this 
announcement  alienated  from  him  all  but  the  most 
violent  of  his  former  supporters.  His  popularity 
was  gone.  The  American  Government  asked  his 
recall,  and  until  this  took  place  in  the  following 
winter  his  only  noteworthy  action  was  his  declara- 
tion that  Chief  Justice  Jay  and  Senator  King  had 
told  a  falsehood. 

6.  Congress  met  December  2d,  1793,  with  a  slight 
Hid   Congress,     Republican     majority    in    the 

1st  Session.  House,  where  F.  A.  Muhlen- 
berg, of  Pennsylvania,  a  Republican,  was  chosen 
Speaker.  The  doubtful  vote,  however,  was  still  so 
large  that  there  was  no  real  party  majority.  The 
President's  Proclamation,  and  his  treatment  of 
Genet,  were  approved,  though  not  warmly,  in  the 
House,  where  there  was  increasing  Hostility  to 
England,  provoked  by  England's  systematic  neg- 
lect of  the  interests  and  feelings  of  the  United 
States. 

7.  England  had  never  accredited  a  resident 
Minister  to  the   Unjted  States,  and  had  refused  to 

3 


34  American  Politics.  [i793 

carry  out  those  articles  of  the  Treaty  of  1783  which 
bound  her  to  surrender  her  military  posts  on  United 
States  soil,  and  to  pay  for  slaves  carried  away  by 
her  armies.  It  was  firmly  believed  that  her  agents 
had  interfered  to  prevent  treaties  of  peace  with  the 
savages  of  the  North-West,  and  had  incited  them 
to  renewed  attacks  upon  the  frontier  settlements. 
An  unexpected  treaty  of  peace  between  Portugal 
and  Algiers,  which  had  let  loose  the  Algerine  pirates 
for  a  warfare  upon  the  Atlantic  against  unprotected 
American  commerce,  was  attributed  to  English  in- 
tervention. The  impressment  of  American  seamen, 
under  color  of  their  resemblance  to  Englishmen, 
was  a  growing  grievance.  All  English  ships  of 
war  had  been  ordered,  on  the  8th  of  June,  1793,  to 
stop  vessels  bound  for  France  with  corn,  and  com- 
pel them  to  change  their  course  to  an  English  port. 
This  blow  at  American  commerce  with  France  had 
been  supplemented  by  a  further  order  of  November 
6th,  that  all  such  vessels  should  be  seized  and  sent 
to  Great  Britain  for  trial  by  English  courts.  Her 
refusal  to  evacuate  the  Western  posts  was  grounded 
on  the  unjustifiable  neglect  of  the  United  States  to 
enforce  that  article  of  the  Treaty  of  1783  which 
provided  for  the  payment  of  debts  due  to  British 
subjects.  For  her  further  offensive  measures  no 
justification  was  offered,  except  her  sovereign  will. 
She  acted  apparently  under  the  belief  that  the 
United  States  were  the  concealed,  but  soon  to  be 
the  avowed,  ally  of  her  enemy,  and   thus  she  con- 


1 794- J  J<^ys  Nomination.  35 

tributed  in  no  small  degree  to  swell  the  current  of 
anti-English  feeling. 

8.  The  retaliating  orders  and  decrees  of  Great 
Britain  and  the  French  Republic  had  already  in- 
jured American  commerce.  In  an  Official  Report 
of  December  i6th  Jefferson  advised  friendly  ar- 
rangements for  their  cessation,  if  possible,  and,  in 
default  of  these,  active  retaliation  upon  the  offend- 
ing nation.  As  England  was  more  likely  to  be  the 
offender,  the  Republicans  promptly  adopted  the 
suggestion,  and,  January  4th,  1794,  Madison  intro- 
duced resolutions  imposing  prohibitory  duties  upon 
English  goods.  They  were  debated,  at  intervals, 
for  two  months,  but  finally  failed. 

9.  The  Debates  of  this  Session  were  mainly 
upon  commercial  matters.  The  Federalists  wished 
to  form  a  navy,  and  to  maintain  neutrality  between 
England  and  France,  which  was  all  that  England's 
course  allowed  them  to  ask.  The  Republican 
policy  was  a  mixture  of  two  opposites.  It  called 
for  a  prohibition  of  trade  with  England,  or,  at  the 
least,  for  discriminating  duties  against  English  im- 
ports, and  yet  opposed  any  naval  preparation  for 
the  war  to  which  such  a  policy  must  have  led. 
Parties  were  so  evenly  divided,  and  the  doubtful 
vote  changed  sides  so  frequently  that  in  the  middle 
of  April,  1794,  no  decided  result  has  been  reached. 

10.  An  unlooked-for  step  was  taken  by  the  Presi- 
dent, April  i6th.  He  nominated  Chief  Justice 
Jay  to  be  Envoy  Extraordinary  to  England,  for 


36  American  Politics.  [i794 

the  purpose  of  preserving  peace  by  a  new  treaty. 
The  Senate,  where  the  FederaHsts  had  a  small 
majority,  confirmed  the  nomination.  The  Repub- 
licans of  the  House,  on  the  i8th,  endeavored  to 
baulk  the  mission  in  advance  by  a  resolution  en- 
tirely prohibiting  trade  with  England.  The  Sen- 
ate rejected  the  resolution,  and  Jay  sailed  for 
England. 

II.  Party  Contests  were  numerous  through- 
out the  Session.  The  Federalists  succeeded  in 
passing  a  system  of  indirect  taxation  to  provide  for 
the  increased  expenses  of  the  Government,  the 
Republicans  voting  for  direct  taxes,  A  Federalist 
bill  to  prevent  such  practices  as  Genet's  was  op- 
posed by  the  Republicans,  and  bitterly  denounced 
by  the  Democratic  clubs,  but  was  passed  with  some 
modifications.  Some  of  the  Republicans  again  at- 
tempted, and  again  without  success,  to  pass  reso- 
lutions censuring  Hamilton's  management  of  the 
Treasury.  The  Republicans  had  been  alarmed  by 
a  decision  of  the  Supreme  Court  that  an  action 
brought  by  a  citizen  of  the  United  States  would  lie 
against  a  State,  just  as  against  any  other  corpora- 
tion. At  this  Session,  therefore,  an  Amendment 
was  adopted,  securing  States  against  suit  in  United 
States  Courts.  It  was  afterwards  ratified  by  the 
necessary  number  of  States,  and  became  the  Xlth 
Amendment,  which  has  enabled  so  many  States 
to  repudiate  debt  with  impunity.  Congress  ad- 
journed June  9th,  1794.     Genet's  actions  had  pre- 


1 79 5-]        J'^ys  Treaty  zvitJi  England.  37 

viously  been  disaiQ3ved  by  a  new  Revolutionary 
Government  in  France,  and  Fauchet  sent  in  his 
stead. 

12.  Before  Congress  re-assembled  the  so-called 
Whiskey  Insurrection  against  the  enforcement 
of  the  Excise  Law  had  been  suppressed.  It  had 
no  political  results,  except  as  it  strengthened  Fed- 
eralism, by  strengthening  popular  sympathy  with 
the  Administration.  It  was  also  one  cause  of  the 
downfall  of  the  Democratic  clubs,  which  Washing- 
ton had  publicly  and  officially,  though  perhaps  mis- 
takenly, declared  to  be  the  instigators  of  the  Insur- 
rection. They  thus  lost  popularity,  and  the  over- 
throw of  Robespierre  and  the  French  Jacobin  clubs 
was  soon  followed  by  the  ignominous  death  of  their 
American  imitations. 

13.  Congress  met  November  3d,  1794.  In  Jan^ 
Hid  Congress,     uary  1795,  Hamilton   felt  com- 

2d  Session.  pelled  to  leave  the  Cabinet, 
and  resume  the  practice  of  law  in  New  York.  His 
last  official  act  was  the  arrangement  of  a  plan  of  In- 
ternal Taxation,  which  was  offered  to  Congress," 
and  furnished  material  for  debate  throughout  the 
Session.  It  was  adopted  against  the  opposition  of 
most  of  the  Republicans.  Congress  adjourned 
March  3d,  1795. 

14.  Jay  had  concluded  a  Treaty  with  Eng- 
land, which  did  not  satisfy  him,  but  was  the  best 
that  he  could  procure.  It  reached  America  March 
7th,  and  was  sent  to  the  Senate  in  Special  Session 


38  American  Politics,  [1/95 

June  8th.  It  was  ratified  by  the  necessary  two- 
thirds  majority,  and  only  awaited  the  signature  of 
the  President  to  become  law.  Popular  curiosity 
was  stimulated  by  the  secrecy  of  the  debates. 
When,  on  the  29th  of  June,  a  Senator  in  violation 
of  his  word  gave  a  partial  copy  of  Jay's  Treaty  for 
publication,  and  it  was  found  that  by  its  terms 
England  was  still  at  liberty  to  impress  American 
seamen,  to  harass  American  commerce,  and  to  shut 
it  out  from  the  West  India  trade,  the  wrath  of  the 
Republicans  rose  to  fever  heat,  and  Federalists 
could  hardly  contrive  an  apology  for  a  surrender 
with  which  they  also  were  generally  dissatisfied. 
In  all  the  large  cities  public  meetings  condemned 
the  treaty,  and  called  upon  the  President  to  with- 
hold his  signature. 

15.  But  The  President  felt  that  a  treaty  of 
some  kind  v/as  necessary,  and  that  no  better  one 
could  then  be  obtained.  He  therefore  signed  it. 
Hitherto  criticisms  on  Washington's  policy  had  not 
been  uncommon,  but  his  action  in  signing  Jay's 
Treaty  brought  out  aspersions  upon  his  private 
character,  which  were  carried  so  far  that  he  declared 
**  he  would  rather  be  in  his  grave  than  in  the  Presi- 
dency." He  was  charged  by  the  extreme  Repub- 
licans with  usurpation,  treason  to  his  country,  and 
hostility  to  her  interests.  The  continued  sufferings 
of  American  prisoners  in  Algiers  were  ascribed  to 
his  criminal  indifference.  He  was  accused  of 
having  shown  incapacity  during  the  Revolution,  and 


1 796.]  Debates  on  Jay's  Treaty.  39 

of  having  embezzled  the  public  funds  while  Presi- 
dent. He  was  threatened  with  impeachment,  with 
assassination.  Even  the  honored  epithet  so  long 
given  to  him  was  burlesqued,  and  Washington  was 
for  a  time  known  to  the  Republicans  as  "  The  Step- 
Fatiier  of  his  Country."  And  yet,  within  a  year, 
his  unyielding  common  sense  was  justified  by  a  re- 
vival of  trade  which  gained  friends  for  Jay's  Treaty, 
even  among  its  formerly  bitter  opponents. 

16.  Congress  met  December  7th,  1795,  with  a 
IVth  Congress,     small    Federalist    majority    in 

1st  Session.  the  Senate,  and  a  Republican 

majority  in  the  House,  though  even  there  the  Feder- 
alists succeeded  in  choosing  Jonathan  Dayton,  of 
New  Jersey,  Speaker.  The  Senate,  in  reply  to  the 
President's  Message,  echoed  his  words,  but  the  Re- 
publican majority  in  the  House,  in  order  to  censure 
the  President  indirectly,  voted  down  the  first  sen- 
tence of  their  committee's  draft  of  a  reply,  includ- 
ing an  expression  of  "their  confidence  in  the  Presi- 
dent, and  their  approval  of  his  course." 

17.  March  ist,  1796,  the  President  sent  to  Con- 
gress a  copy  of  his  proclamation,  announcing  to  the 
people  that  the  treaty  with  England,  having  been 
ratified  by  the  Senate  and  signed  by  the  President, 
had  become  law.  In  the  House  this  caused  dissat- 
isfaction, and,  against  the  wishes  of  some  of  the 
moderate  Republicans,  a  resolution  was  passed, 
March  2d,  calling  upon  the  President  to  send  to  the 
House  all   papers  relating  to  Jay's  Treaty.     The 


40  American  Politics.  [i79^ 

President  refused  to  do  so,  giving  as  his  reason  that 
the  House  was  not  a  part  of  the  treaty-making 
power  of  the  Government.  The  House  retorted  by 
another  resolution  declaring  its  right  to  decide  on 
the  necessity  of  any  treaty  by  which  public  money 
was  to  be  expended. 

1 8.  From  the  Federalist  side  of  the  House  a  reso- 
lution was  then  offered,  declaring  that  provision 
ought  to  be  made  by  law  for  carrying  the  treaty  into 
effect.  The  Debate  upon  this  resolution,  in  which 
Fisher  Ames,  of  Massachusetts,  led  the  Federalists, 
lasted  until  April  29th.  By  that  time  public  opinion 
had  pronounced  in  favor  of  the  treaty  too  emphati- 
cally to  be  disregarded  just  before  a  Presidential 
election.  The  Republican  majority  yielded  and 
the  resolution  was  passed.  The  beginning  and  the 
end  of  the  Session  were  taken  up  by  debates  upon 
the  revenue,  in  which  an  increase  of  duties  upon 
imports  was  urged  by  the  Federalists,  but  success- 
fully opposed  by  the  Republicans.  Congress  ad- 
journed June  ist,  1796.  On  that  day  Tennessee, 
formerly  a  part  of  North  Carolina,  became  a  State 
of  the  Union. 

19.  During  the  Summer  of  1796  preparations 
were  begun,  and  electors  were  nominated  for  the 
Presidential  election  in  November.  Washington's 
hold  was  stronger  upon  the  people  than  upon  the 
politicians,  and  he  was  importuned  to  accept  a  third 
term  of  office.  Electors  nominated  by  both  parties 
were  called  upon   to  promise  that,  if  elected,  their 


1796.]  Presidential  Election.  4I 

first  votes  should  be  given  for  Washington.  His 
decision  to  retire  to  private  life  could  not  be  al- 
tered, but  he  decided  to  publish  it  in  a  form  which 
should  always  remain  as  his  answer  to  the  attacks 
upon  him,  which  had  been  made,  to  use  his  own 
words,  "  in  terms  so  exaggerated  and  indecent  as 
could  scarcely  be  applied  to  a  Nero,  a  notorious 
defaulter,  or  even  to  a  common  pickpocket." 

20.  Washington's  Farewell  Address  to  the 
American  people  is  dated  September  17th,  1796. 
It  consists  of  a  modest  estimate  of  his  own  services 
to  the  new  Government,  a  congratulation  that  the 
circumstances  which  gave  a  temporary  value  to  those 
services  were  past,  an  appeal  to  the  people  to  pre- 
serve intact  the  unity  of  the  Government,  to  put 
down  party  spirit,  and  to  make  religion,  education, 
and  public  good  faith  the  basis  of  government,  and, 
lastly,  a  needed  warning  against  the  admission  of 
any  foreign  influence  upon  American  councils.  It 
can  hardly  be  read  without  renewing  the  conviction 
that  George  Washington  was  an  unconscious  but 
sincere  Federalist,  though  hardly  a  fair  critic  of 
party  spirit,  a  modest  Christian,  a  devoted  lover  of 
country,  and  a  great,  unselfish  man. 

21.  The  Farewell  Address  was  the  preliminary  to 
the  first  contested  Presidential  Election.  The 
Constitution  had  fairly  shown  its  merits.  Its  coii- 
tinued  existence  was  assured,  and  there  was  no 
longer  any  necessity  for  keeping  the  political  peace 
between  the  two  great  parties.     No  formal  nomina- 


42  American  Politics.  [^79^ 

tions  were  made,  but  it  was  understood  that  the  Re- 
pubhcan  electors  would  cast  their  votes  for  Thomas 
Jefferson,  of  Virginia,  and  Aaron  Burr,  of  New 
York,  and  the  Federalist  electors  for  John  Adams, 
of  Massachusetts,  and  Thomas  Pinckne}^  of  Mary- 
land. Hamilton's  ardent  political  zeal  had  made 
so  many  enemies  that  he  was  not  considered  a  suit- 
able candidate.  The  Federalists  claimed  support 
as  the  authors  of  the  Government,  the  friends  of 
neutrality,  peace,  and  prosperity,  and  the  direct  in- 
heritors of  Washington's  policy.  The  Republicans 
claimed  to  be  the  friends  of  liberty  and  the  rights 
of  man,  the  advocates  of  economy  and  of  the  rights 
of  the  States,  and  refused  to  recognize  their  oppo- 
nents as  the  inheritors  of  any  policy  but  that  of 
England.  The  Presidential  election  took  place  in 
November,  1796,'  and  the  French  Minister  under- 
took to  influence  it  by  an  extraordinary  '*  Address 
to  the  American  People,"  in  which  he  hinted  that 
his  Government  would  cease  intercourse  with  the 
United  States  unless  the  Republicans  were  success- 
ful. Federalist  electors  were  chosen  in  most  of  the 
Northern  States,  while  the.  Southern  States,  with 
the  exception  of  Maryland,  generally  chose  Repub- 
licans.    The  result  was  a  slight  Federalist  majority. 

22.  Congress  met  December  5th,  1796,  but  its 
IVth  Congress,       proceedings  gave    little    op- 

2d  Session.  portunity  for  party  contest. 

I  Until  about  1824-1828  electors  were  generally  chosen,  not  directly  by 
the  people,  but  by  the  Legislatures  of  the  various  States. 


J  797-]  Presidential  Eleetion.  43 

In  the  House  an  attempt  was  made  to  renew  the 
last  year's  expression  of  want  of  confidence  in 
Washington,  but  it  was  defeated.  In  February, 
1797,  the  electoral  votes  were  counted,  and  were 
found  to  be,  for  John  Adams  71,  for  Thomas  Jeffer- 
son dZ,  for  Thomas  Pinckney  59,  for  Aaron  Burr 
30,  and  the  rest  scattering.*  John  Adams  was 
therefore  declared  to  be  elected  President,  and 
Thomas  Jefferson  Vice-President.  The  Execu- 
tive was  thus  Federalist,  with  a  possibility  of  a  Re- 
publican succession,  in  case  of  the  death,  disability, 
or  impeachment  and  removal  of  the  President.  It 
was  plain  that  a  mode  of  election  which  offered  so 
much  temptation  to  the  cupidity  of  party  or  the 
caprice  of  fortune  was  faulty,  and  could  not  endure. 
A  further  experience  of  its  danger,  however,  was 
needed  to  enforce  its  amendment.  Congress  ad- 
journed March  3d,  1797.  March  4th  Adams  and 
Jefferson  were  sworn  into  office. 

I  Two  electors  obstinately  voted  for  George  Washington. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

THIRD    ADMINISTRATION,    1797-180I. 

John  Adams,  President.  Thomas  JeflFerson,  Vice-President. 

Vth  and  Vlth  Congresses. 

I.  The  beginning  of  Adams's  Administration 
was  marked  by  a  more  open  manifestation  of  bad 
feeling  on  the  part  of  tlie  French  Republic, 
which  was  ascribed  by  the  Federalists  to  the  anger 
of  the  French  Directory  on  account  of  the  Repub- 
lican defeat,  and  by  the  Republicans  to  the  anxiety 
of  two  successive  Federalist  Administrations  to 
be  in  close  dependence  upon  England.  In  1797, 
Monroe,  an  ardent  Republican,  who  had  been 
Minister  to  France,  was  recalled,  and  C.  C.  Pinck- 
ney  was  sent  in  his  place.  On  Monroe's  depar-, 
ture  from  Paris  the  French  Directory  announced, 
in  studied  terms  of  affection  for  the  American  peo- 
ple and  of  contempt  for  the  American  Government, 
their  intention  to  receive  no  more  American  Minis- 
ters until  their  grievances  were  redressed.  Promi- 
nent among  these  grievances  was  Jay's  Treaty. 
At  the  same  time  Pinckney  was  ordered  to  quit 
the  territory  of  France  at  once. 
44 


1797.]  The  X.  Y.Z.  Mission,  45 

2.  Upon  receipt  of  this  news  the  President  hastily 
Vth  Congress,  called  an  Extra  Session  of  Con- 
Extra  Session,  gress  for  the  15th  of  May. 
Both  branches  had  Federalist  majorities,  and  Jona- 
than Dayton,  of  New  Jersey,  was  chosen  Speaker 
of  the  House.  The  main  business  of  the  Session 
was  to  listen  to  an  Address  of  the  President 
in  which  he  announced  his  intention  to  send  three 
envoys  to  France,  as  a  last  effort  to  obtain  peace. 
Many  of  the  Republicans  considered  the  whole 
trouble  to  be  the  result  of  Federalist  intrigues,  but 
a  majority  of  both  Houses  approved  the  President's 
course.  Congress  adjourned  July  loth,  1797,  and 
the  envoys  soon  after  departed  for  France. 
Through  the  Summer  of  1797  parties  remained 
as  before,  each  accusing  the  other,  perhaps  with 
equal  justice,  of  a  willingness  to  sacrifice  the  inter- 
ests of  America  to  those  of  a  foreign  country.  A 
foreign  traveler  about  this  time  said  that  there 
seemed  to  be  in  America  many  English,  many 
French,  but  very  few  Americans. 

3.  The  envoys  to  France,  after  patiently  enduring 
for  months  a  treatment  unworthy  of  the  ambassad(irs 
of  a  free  people,  including  a  demand  for  a  bribe  to 
the  French  Directory,  and  a  loan  to  the  French  Re- 
public,aspreliminaries  to  any  negotiation, received 
peremptory  orders  to  quit  P>ance,  and  returned 
with  empty  hands.  Their  mission  is  frequently 
called  The  X.Y.Z.  Mission,  from  the  letters 
concealing  the  names  of  those  who  demanded  the 


4^  American  Politics,  ['798 

bribes.  In  the  mean  time  French  attacks  on  Ameri- 
can commerce,  which  had  hitherto  been  cloaked  to 
some  extent  by  a  pretense  of  respect  for  interna- 
tional law,  had  now  become  an  open  warfare. 
American  shipping  papers  were  a  sufficient  warrant 
for  the  capture  and  condemnation  of  the  vessels 
which  carried  them. 

4.  Congress  met  November  13th,  1797.  At  first 
Vth  Congress,     the   Republican  disposition   to 

1st  Session.  tolerate  almost  any  treatment 
from  France  was  continued,  and  early  in  1798  the 
House  voted  down  a  proposition  to  arm  American 
vessels.  April  8th  the  Senate  voted  to  publish  the 
X.Y.Z.  letters,  and  the  dispatches  of  the  envoys. 
To  England  they  seemed  of  such  importance  that 
they  were  sent  everywhere  in  Europe  to  excite  feel- 
ing against  France.  In  America  one  burst  of  in- 
dignation from  the  Federalists  converted  many  of 
the  Republicans,  and  silenced  the  rest.  "  Millions 
for  defense  ;  not  one  cent  for  tribute  "  became  a 
rallying  cry,  in  and  out  of  Congress. 

5.  Under  the  influence  of  the  War  Spirit  a 
number  of  acts  were  passed  to  place  the  nation  in 
readiness  for  hostilities.  A  provisional  army  was 
ordered,  of  which  Washington  was  commissioned 
Lieutenant-General.  American  men-of-war  were 
ordered  to  seize  any  French  vessels  which  should 
commit  depredations  on  American  commerce.  In- 
tercourse with  France  was  suspended.  The  treaties 
with  France  were  declared  no  longer  binding  upon 


1798-]  Alien  and  Sedition  Laws,  47 

the  United  States,  and  authority  was  given  to  the 
President  to  issue  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal. 
So  far,  the  acts  passed  were  only  the  natural  evi- 
dences of  a  nation's  outraged  dignity.  But  the 
Federalists,  intoxicated  by  the  possession  of  unre- 
strained power,  and  hurried  on  by  an  instinctive 
passion  for  strong  government,  proceeded  to  force 
through  two  acts  which  were  well  calculated  to 
convince  the  popular  mind  of  their  disregard  for 
the  Constitution,  They  seem,  indeed,  to  have  been 
in  the  end  the  death  warrant  of  the  Federal   party. 

6.  June  25th  the  so-called  Alien  Law  was 
passed.  It  authorized  the  President  to  order  any 
alien  whom  he  should  judge  to  be  dangerous  to  the 
peace  and  liberties  of  America  to  depart  from  the 
United  States,  and  made  provision  for  the  fining 
and  imprisonment  of  such  aliens  as  should  refuse 
to  obey  the  President's  order.  July  14th  the  so- 
called  Sedition  Law  was  passed.  It  imposed  a 
heavy  fine  and  imprisonment  upon  such  as  should 
combine  or  conspire  together  to  oppose  any  meas- 
ure of  Government,  and  upon  such  as  should  utter 
any  false,  scandalous,  or  malicious  writing  against 
the  Government,  Congress,  or  President  of  the 
United  States.  This  act  was  to  remain  in  force 
until  March  3d,  iSoi.  Congress  adjourned  July 
i6th,  1798. 

7.  These  two  tremendous  statutes  were  such  a 
stretch  of  power  as  had  not  been  ventured  upon 
since    the    Revolution.     Without    them,  the    open 


48  American  Politics.  [1798 

attempts  of  the  French  Directory  to  dictate  a  gov- 
ernment and  policy  to  the  United  States,  their  dis- 
criminating kindness  to  the  Republican  member  of 
the  mission  to  France,  and  the  patriotic  and  suc- 
cessful stand  taken  by  the  Federalist  Administra- 
tion, would  almost  have  insured  the  government  to 
the  Federal  party  for  the  future.  It  was  evident 
that  the  Republicans  believed  that  these  two  stat- 
utes were  aimed  at  them  as  a  party,  and  were  un- 
constitutional and  in  violation  of  the  1st  Amend- 
ment, which  prohibited  Congress  from  passing  any 
law  to  abridge  freedom  of  speech  or  of  the  press. 
And  it  should  have  been  evident  to  the  Federalist 
leaders  that,  when  the  war  feeling  should  subside, 
popular  opinion  would  incline  to  the  Republican 
view,  unless  the  statutes  were  repealed  as  soon  as 
the  necessity  for  them  was  past. 

8.  It  will  be  seen  that,  during  the  next  year, 
France  denied  any  knowledge  of  the  agents  who 
had  demanded  bribes,  and  hastened  to  conclude  a 
peace.  But,  though  preparations  for  war  were  then 
at  an  end,  the  Federalists  persisted  in  enforcing 
prosecutions  under  the  Alien  and  Sedition  Laws, 
even  in  the  doubtful  States,  New  York,  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  New  Jersey.  Though  this  excited  pub- 
lic resentment,  it  came  too  late  to  influence  the  elec- 
tion for  members  of  the  Vlth  Congress,  in  which 
the  Federalists,  by  the  help  of  the  war  feeling,  were 
completely  successful.  Seeing  no  hope  of  present 
success  in  Congress,  the  Republican  leaders  deter- 


179^-]  Resolutions  of  1798.  49 

mined,  if  possible,  to  entrench  themselves  in  the 
State  Legislatures,  and,  through  them,  to  protest 
against  measures  which  they  were  unable  to  resist. 
To  this  end  a  series  of  resolutions,  the  authorship 
of  which  is  disputed,  was  adopted  by  the  Legisla- 
ture of  Kentucky,  and  a  similar  series,  put  in  form 
by  Madison,  was  adopted  by  the  Legislature  of 
Virginia.  These  are  known  as  the  Kentucky, 
and  the  Virginia,  Resolutions  of  1798.  They 
are  interesting  as  the  first  authorized  [Proclamation 
of  the  Strict  Constructionist  party,  though  allow- 
ance must  be  made  for  the  excited  state  of  political 
feeling  at  the  time  of  their  passage. 

9.  The  Virginia  Resolutions  declared  that 
the  Constitution  was  a  compact  by  which  the  States 
had  surrendered,  only  a  limited  portion  of  their 
powers  ;  that  whenever  the  Federal  Government 
undertook  to  step  over  the  boundary  of  its  dele- 
gated authority  it  was  the  right  and  the  duty  of  the 
States  to  interpose,  and  maintain  the  rights  which 
they  had  reserved  to  themselves  ;  that  the  Alien 
and  Sedition  Laws  were  an  usurpation  by  the 
Federal  Government  of  powers  not  granted  to  it, 
since  the  abridgment  of  liberty  of  speech  or  of  the 
press  had  been  expressly  forbidden  by  the  Consti- 
tution ;  that  the  State  of  Virginia  solemnly  declared 
those  laws  to  be  unconstitutional,  and  appealed  to 
the  other  States,  to  join  in  that  declaration  ;  and 
that  her  Governor  should  be  instructed  to  transmit 
copies  of  these  resolutions  to  the  Governors  of 
4 


50  American  Politics,  [^79^ 

other  States  to  be  laid  before  their  Legislatures. 
The  response  from  other  States  was  unfavorable, 
and  Virginia  repeated  her  resolutions  the  next  year, 
1799. 

10.  The  Kentucky  Resolutions  were  to  the 
same  general  effect  as  those  of  Virginia,  but  with 
the  additional  declaration  that  the  States  were  one 
party  to  the  compact,  and  the  Federal  Government 
was  the  other,  and  that  each  party  must  be  the 
judge  of  infractions  of  the  agreement,  and  of  the 
mode  and  measure  of  redress.  The  next  year  the 
Kentucky  Resolutions  of  1799  were  passed.  They 
declared  "nullification"  to  be  "  the  rightful  remedy"; 
but,  as  they  announced  at  the  same  time  that  the 
commonwealth  "bowed  to  the  laws  of  the  Union," 
while  solemnly  protesting  against  the  obnoxious 
laws,  it  is  apparent  that  they  had  in  view  no  such 
"  nullification  "  as  that  attempted  by  South  Caro- 
lina in  1832.'  The  New  England  opposition  to  the 
Embargo  in  1808'  was  a  fair  example  of  the  first 
idea  of  "nullification" — a  combination  of  a  State 
legislature,  executive,  and  judiciary  to  impede  stub 
bornly,  but  peaceably,  the  execution  of  an  uncon- 
stitutional law. 

11.  Congress  met   December    3d,   1798,  with   a 
Vth  Congress,     continued   Federalist    majority. 

2d  Session.  War  against  France  had  not 
been  formally  declared,  but  a  species  of  warfare 
existed  upon  the  ocean,  in  which  American  privat- 

I  See  p.  120.  3  See  pp.  71,  78. 


'799']       Imperfect   War  ivitJi  France,  51 

eers,  armed  merchantmen,  and  even  ships  of  war 
engaged  in  conflicts  with  French  vessels.  Both 
parties  agreed  in  voting  an  increase  of  the  navy, 
but  an  increase  of  the  army  was  earnestly  opposed 
by  the  Republicans,  who  believed  that  this  and  simi- 
lar warlike  measures  were  only  urged  by  the  Feder- 
alists from  a  desire  for  party  aggrandizement  by 
providing  commissions  for  their  party  leaders.  The 
President  seems  to  have  become  at  least  a  partial 
convert  to  this  view,  for  in  February,  1799,  without 
consulting  his  Cabinet,  and  in  spite  of  his  expressed 
determination  to  send  no  more  ministers  to  France 
until  assured  of  a  friendly  reception,  he  suddenly 
appointed  three  envoys  to  that  country.  Two  of 
the  Cabinet  protested  against  this  action  of  the 
President.  Their  protest  was  sustained  by  leading 
Federalists  throughout  the  country,  and  the  Presi- 
dent began  to  lose,  to  some  degree,  the  support  of 
the  party  which  had  elected  him.  Congress  ad- 
journed March  3d,  1799. 

12.  The  difficulties  of  the  Federalists  were  now  in- 
creased by  an  evident  dissension  between  Hamilton, 
who  was  the  real  leader  of  the  party,  and  Adams, 
who  was  its  nominal  head.  No  open  quarrel  had 
as  yet  taken  place.  But  when  the  envoys  to  France, 
who  had  waited  until  November  for  assurances  of  a 
friendly  reception,  were  ordered  to  depart  by  the 
President,  again  without  consulting  his  Cabinet,  his 
apparent  eagerness  for  peace  and  distrust  of  Ham- 
ilton   widened    the   breach    between    them.     The 


52  Aniertcan  Politics,  [1800 

envoys  were  successful  in  arranging  a  treaty  with 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,  who  was  then  at  the  head  of 
the  French  Directory. 

i^.  Congress  met  December  2d,  1799,  with  a 
Vlth  Congress,     stronger  Federalist   majority. 

1st  Session.  Tiieodore  Sedgwick,  of  Massa- 
chusetts,  a  Federalist,  was  chosen  Speaker  of  the 
House.  There  was  little  party  contest  in  this 
Session.  The  Federalist  majority  had  been  chosen 
during  the  war  fever,  immediately  after  the  igno- 
minious return  of  the  envoys  to  France,  and  neither 
represented  nor  felt  the  undercurrent  of  irritation 
which  the  continued  enforcement  of  The  Alien 
and  Sedition  Laws  was  increasing.  The  Repub- 
lican minority  were  kept  in  check,  through  their 
leaders,  by  Jefferson,  who  preferred  to  allow  the 
popular  excitement  to  work  until  the  Presidential 
election  of  1800.  During  the  Session  caucuses  of 
Members  of  Congress  nominated  Presidential  can- 
didates.' The  Federalist  candidates  were  John 
Adams,  of  Massachusetts,  and  C.  C.  Pinckney,  of 
South  CaroHna,  and  the  Republican  candidates  were 
Thomas  Jefferson,  of  Virginia,  and  Aaron  Burr,  of 
New  York.     Congress  adjourned  May  14th,  1800. 

14.  The  first  important  election  took  place  in 
New  York,  April  28th,  and  resulted  in  the  choice 
of  a  Republican  Legislature,  by  whom  electors 
were  to  be  chosen.     At  this  first  token  of  Fede- 

I  Nominatinjj  Conventions  were  not  called  until  1832. 


i8oi.]  Election  by  the  House.  53 

ralist  Defeat  the  slumbering  an'mosities  of  the 
party  broke  forth.  The  President  dismissed  a 
part  of  his  Cabinet,  consisting  of  Hamilton's 
friends,  whom  he  called  a  "  British  faction."  Ham- 
ilton printed  a  severe  attack  upon  the  President, 
and  endeavored  to  make  arrangements  for  giving 
Pinckney  a  majority  of  Federalist  electors,  that  he 
might  be  chosen  President,  and  Adams  Vice-Presi- 
dent. The  Presidential  Election  took  place  in 
November,  1800.  In  spite  of  Federalist  divisions 
the  result  was  doubtful  until  the  vote  of  South 
Carolina  turned  the  scale,  and  gave  the  Republican 
electors  a  majority. 

15.  Congress  met  in  the  new  Federal  city  of 
Vlth  Congress,     Washington,  November    17th, 

2d  Session.  1800.  The  session  was  mainly 
occupied  by  The  Undecided  Presidential 
Election,  caused  by  the  defective  provisions  of 
the  Constitution.  In  February,  1801,  the  electoral 
votes  were  counted,  and  were  found  to  be,  for  Jef- 
ferson 73,  for  Burr  73,  for  Adams  65,  for  Pinckney 
64,  and  for  John  Jay  i.  There  was  no  name  high- 
est on  the  list.  Consequently  there  was  no  choice, 
and  an  election  was  to  be  made  by  the  House  of 
Representatives  between  the  two  highest  candi- 
dates, each  State  having  one  vote.  It  is  impossible 
to  say  why  the  Republican  leaders,  or  electors,  did 
not  foresee  this  mischance.  The  difference  of  one 
vote  between  Adams  and  Pinckney  would  seem  to 
show  that  at  least  one  Federalist  elector  was  acute 


54  American  Politics.  [1801 

enough  to  waste  a  vote  and  avoid  a  possible  tie, 
for  South  Carolina's  votes,  if  cast  as  was  hoped  by 
some  Federalists  for  their  candidates,  would  then 
have  seated  both  these  without  trouble. 

16.  The  House  was  Federalist,  but  was  restricted 
to  a  choice  between  two  Republicans.  Of  the  two, 
many  Federalists  preferred  Burr,  partly  to  keep 
the  Presidency  from  their  most  dangerous  enemy, 
Jefferson,  and  partly  to  baulk  the  evident  intention 
of  the  Republicans.  The  balloting  began  February 
nth.  Eight  States  voted  for  Jefferson,  six  for 
Burr,  and  two  were  without  votes  because  of  equal 
division  among  their  members.  There  being  six- 
teen States  there  was  even  yet  No  Election. 
Balloting  continued  with  the  same  lesult  for  six 
days,  and  the  Federalist  majority  was  charged  with 
a  design  to  prolong  the  balloting  in  this  way  until 
March  4th,  the  day  of  inauguration,  and  then  to 
make  Chief  Justice  Jay  provisional  President.  The 
charge  was  denied  by  the  Federalists,  Fortunately 
the  trouble  came  to  an  end  February  17th,  when 
ten  States  voted  for  Jefferson,  four  for  Burr,  and 
two  blank.  Jefferson  was  then  declared  elected 
President,  and  Burr  Vice-President.  Congress 
adjourned  March  3d,  1801,  and  March  4th  Jeffer- 
son and  Burr  were  sworn  into  office. 


CHAPTER   V. 

FOURTH    ADMINISTRATION,    1801-1805. 

riioinas  JeflFerson,  President.  Aaron  Burr,  Vice-President. 

Vllth  and  Vlllth  Congresses. 

I.  Jefferson's  Election  completed  the  first 
great  political  revolution  in  the.  United  States  since 
1787,  except  that  the  Federalists  still  had  control 
of  the  judiciary.  The  new  President's  first  Inaug- 
ural Message  announced  the  future  policy  of  the 
Republican  party  to  be  the  careful  fostering  of  the 
State  governments,  the  restriction  of  the  powers  of 
the  Federal  Government  to  their  lowest  constitu- 
tional limit,  the  immediate  payment  of  the  public 
debt,  and  the  reduction  of  the  army,  the  navy,  the 
taxes,  and  the  duties  on  imports,  to  the  lowest 
available  point.  The  Republicans  were  opposed 
to  any  currency  but  gold  and  silver,  and  some  of 
their  leaders  even  desired  an  Amendment  to  the 
Constitution  denying  to  the  Federal  Government 
the  power  of  borrowing  money,  believing  that  a 
yearly  direct  tax  for  the  current  expenses  of  the 
Government  would  compel  the  people  to  decide 
more-  carefully   on  questions   of    peace,   war,   and 

55 


56  Amcricaji  Politics.  [1801 

finance.  Upon  most  of  the  articles  of  Republican 
belief,  the  Federalists  were  more  willing  to  give 
latitude  and  power  to  the  Federal  Government. 
But  the  hatred  of  the  parties  for  each  other  was  a 
little  abated,  though  the  Federalists  still  called  their 
opponents  Democrats  and  Jacobins,  while  the  Re- 
publicans retorted  with  the  name  of  ''  Black-Cock- 
ade Federalist,"  in  allusion  to  the  party  badge  worn 
by  them  in  the  time  of  the  war  fever  of  1798. 

2.  The  Anticipations  of  the  Federalists  for 
the  future  of  the  country  under  Republican  rule 
were  naturally  gloomy.  The  Federal  party  prob- 
ably contained  the  larger  portion  of  the  intellect, 
wealth,  and  culture  of  the  country,  and,  in  their 
honest  opinion,  the  Government  was  now  in  bad 
nands.  The  President  was  "  an  atheist  in  religion, 
and  a  fanatic  in  politics,"  and  the  Vice-President 
was  only  more  tolerable  because  less  known.  The 
party  which  supported  them  was  composed  of  dis- 
organizers,  Jacobins,  and  revolutionists.  The  Presi- 
dent felt  it  to  be  his  duty  to  act  so  moderately  as 
to  give  Federalist  apprehensions  no  darker  color, 
although  he  was  determined  to  undo^so  far  as  pos- 
sible, the  centralizing  measures  of  the  last  Admin- 
istration. With  this  view  he  took  the  first  oppor- 
tunity after  entering  office,  to  issue  Executive  par- 
dons to  those  who  were  imprisoned  under  the  Alien 
and  Sedition  Laws. 

3.  A  troublesome  problem  occupied  the  summer 
of    1801.     The    Republicans   were   clamorous  for 


I  So  I.]  State  of  Partie:^.  57 

Offices,  and  none  were  vacant.  They  therefore 
demanded  that  Federalist  office-holders  should  be 
removed  to  make  room  for  Republican  successors. 
The  President  followed  the  course  he  had  previously 
marked  out,  removing  no  person  merely  for  hold- 
ing Federalist  opinions,  but  removing  all  office- 
holders who  had  used  their  official  power  for  party 
purposes,  or  who  had  been  appointed  by  President 
Adams  after  the  result  of  the  last  election  had  be- 
come known.  The  supply  of  offices  thus  placed  at 
his  disposal  satisfied  the  most  pressing  demands, 
and  for  the  future  he  trusted  to  the  natural  de- 
crease in  the  ranks  of  the  office-holders,  of  whom, 
however,  he  complained  that  "  few  died,  and  none 
resigned." 

4.  Congress  met  December  7th,  1801,  with  a 
Vllth  Congress,     small     Republican     majority 

1st  Session.  in    both    branches.     In    the 

House  Nathaniel  Macon,  of  North  Carolina,  a  Re- 
publican, was  chosen  Speaker.  Instead  of  the  Presi- 
dent's address  in  person  to  both  Houses  of  Congress, 
which  had  hitherto  been  the  rule,  the  President  sent 
a  written  Message,  as  more  suited  to  republican 
simplicity,  and  succeeding  Presidents  have  followed 
the  example.  In  the  debates  which  followed  the 
Message  the  Republicans  advocated  and  carried 
reductions  in  the  army,  the  navy,  taxes  and  duties. 
Instead  of  the  fourteen  years'  residence  necessary 
for  naturalization  under  a  Federalist  law,  five  years 
were  substituted. 


58  American  Politics.  [i8oi 

5.  The  remainder  of  the  Session  was  occupied 
by  debate  on  a  proposed  repeal  of  a  Judiciary 
Law  passed  at  the  last  Session,  by  which  twenty- 
four  new  Federal  Courts  had  been  erected,  with  the 
proper  complement  of  officers  to  each.  The  Re- 
publicans claimed  that  there  had  not  been  business 
enough  to  occupy  the  United  States  Courts  already 
in  existence  ;  that  the  bill  had  been  hastily  drawn 
up  and  passed,  after  the  Republican  success  in  the 
last  election  had  been  assured,  only  in  order  to 
provide  offices  for  Federalist  leaders,  who  were 
about  to  be  driven  from  power  ;  and  that  President 
Adams  had  been  kept  busy  until  midnight  of  his 
last  day  of  office  in  signing  commissions  for  the 
judges.  All  this  seemed  to  the  Republicans  a  gross 
abuse  of  power,  and  they  were  determined  to  oust 
the  "  midnight  judges  "  by  repealing  the  law.  The 
Constitution  seemed  plainly  to  prohibit  any  such 
repeal,  and  the  existence  of  the  Republican  party 
was  based  upon  a  strict  constructian  of  the  Consti- 
tution. Party  necessities  and  vindictiveness,  how- 
ever, soon  found  available  interpretations  for  the 
Constitution,  and  the  law  was  repealed.  The  Fed- 
eral party,  which  had  founded  and  nurtured  the 
Federal  Government,  was  thus  driven  from  its  last 
strong  hold  in  it,  and  lost  forever  the  control  of 
national  politics,  though  it  retained  its  power  in 
New  England  for  about  ten  years  afterward.  Con- 
gress adjourned  May  3d,  1802. 

6.  In  the  Summer  of  1801  news  came  from  France 


i8o2.]  Louisiana  and  France.  59 

which  did  much  to  cool  the  pro-French  partizanship 
of  even  the  most  zealous  Republicans.  France  had 
acquired  from  Spain  the  vast  territory  known  as 
Louisiana,  stretching  from  the  mouth  to  the  head 
of  the  Mississippi,  and  indefinitely  Westward  toward 
the  Pacific.  The  United  States  were  thus  to  be 
hemmed  in  by  one  of  the  great  European  belliger- 
ents on  the  North,  and  by  another  on  the  South  and 
West,  and  the  policies  and  alliances  of  Europe  were 
to  be  extended  to  the  Western  Continent.  The 
President  at  once  directed  the  American  Minister 
at  Paris  to  lay  the  strongest  remonstrances  before 
the  First  Consul.  He  was  ordered  to  declare 
that,  while  the  present  possession  of  Louisiana  by 
a  weak  nation  like  Spain  would  be  tolerated,  its 
transfer  to  a  strong,  active,  colonizing  power  like 
France  would  immediately  drive  the  United  States 
into  close  alliance  with  England,  and  that,  in  short, 
the  foreign  possessor  of  New  Orleans  must  be  the 
enemy  of  the  United  States. 

7.  Congress    I'net    December    6th,    1802.     The 
Vllth     Congress,     President's      Message 
2d  Session.  stated    that   $8,000,000   of 

the  public  debt  had  been  paid  during  the  year,  and 
called  attention  to  Spain's  unfriendly  action  in 
closing  New  Orleans,  which  she  still  controlled, 
against  American  commerce.  Resolutions  con- 
demning Spain's  conduct  were  introduced  and 
passed  by  the  Republicans.  A  constitutional 
Amendment  chanfrlnor  the  mode  of  the  Presidential 


6o  American  Politics.  [1802 

election  was  debated,  but  did  not  obtain  the  neces- 
sary two-thirds  vote.  Some  of  the  RepubHcans 
made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  aboHsh  the  Mint, 
as  a  useless  piece  of  expense,  and  the  Federalists 
were  equally  unsuccessful  in  attempting  to  fasten  a 
charge  of  mismanagement  upon  the  Treasury.  The 
rest  of  the  Session  was  spent  in  considering  the 
Yazoo  Frauds,  which  had  no  party  interest.  Coiv 
gress  adjourned  March  3d,  1803. 

8.  Ohio  had  become  a  State  of  the  Union  No- 
vember 29th,  1802.  It  was  formed  from  the  North- 
West  Territory,  which  had  been  organized  by  an 
ordinance  of  July  13th,  1787.  Article  VI  of  this 
ordinance  reads :  "  There  shall  be  neither  slavery 
nor  involuntary  servitude  in  the  said  Territory, 
otherwise  than  in  the  punishment  of  crimes  whereof 
the  party  shall  have  been  duly  convicted."  The 
ordinance  of  1787  is  noteworthy  as  an  exercise  by 
the  Congress  of  the  Confederacy  of  the  right  to 
exclude  Slavery  from  the  Territories.  ' 

9.  James  Monroe  had  been  sent  to  France  to 
buy  Florida  and  the  island  of  Orleans.  France 
was  preparing  for  renewed  war  with  Great  Britain 
and  was  in  need  of  money.  Monroe  therefore 
transcended   his  instructions,  and   made  a  bargain 

I  It  will  be  found  that  the  language  of  this  ordinance  was  copied  in  the 
efforts  made  in  1819  (Missouri),  1846  (Wilmot  Proviso),  and  1865  (Xlllth 
Amendment),  to  assert  and  maintain  for  the  Federal  Congress  under  the 
Constitution  this  power  of  regulating  and  abolishing  Slavery  in  the  Terri- 
tories of  the  United  States,  and  finally,  in  the  States  as  the  result  of  civU 


i8o3.]  The  Louisiana  Purchase.  6 1 

for  all  Louisiana  for  $15,000,000.  The  President 
at  once  agreed  to  it  though  he  believed  that  the 
Constitution  gave  the  Federal  Government  no  power 
to  purchase  foreign  territory  and  make  it  a  part  of 
the  Union.  But  he  likened  his  action  to  that  of  a 
guardian  who  makes  an  unauthorized  purchase  for 
the  benefit  of  his  ward,  trusting  that  the  latter  will 
afterward  ratify  it.  In  this  instance  the  ratifica- 
tion was  prepared  as  an  Amendment  to  the  Consti- 
tion,  but  was  never  offered,  the  President's  action 
having  been  in  effect  ratified  by  general  acquies- 
cence in  it.  This  course  was  imitated  without 
question  in  several  instances  afterward. 

10.  Congress  met  October  17th,  1803,  having 
Vlllth  Congress,    been  called  to  an  early  session 

1st   Session.  by  the    President  that  there 

might  be  mote  time  for  discussing  the  French 
Treaty.  Both  branches  had  Republican  majori- 
ties, and  in  the  House  Nathaniel  Macon  was  again 
chosen  Speaker.  The  Treaty  was  ratified,  and 
appropriations  made  for  its  execution,  after  a  de- 
bate which  was  almost  a  repetition  of  that  on  Jay's 
Treaty  in  1795,  each  party,  however,  citing  the 
arguments  and  resolutions  then  offered  by  the  op- 
posite party.  During  this  Session  the  manner  of 
the  Presidential  election  was  amended  to  the  form 
which  it  has  at  present.  Having  been  ratified  by 
the  necessary  number  of  States,  this  became  the 
Xllth  Amendment.  Articles  of  impeachment 
were  voted   by   the    House    against   a   Federalist 


62  American  Politics,  [1804 

Judge,  Chase,  of  Maryland,  for  arbitrary  and  op- 
pressive conduct  in  trying  cases  under  the  Alien 
and  Sedition  Laws.  Congress  adjourned  March 
27th,  1804. 

11.  The  Republicans  offered  the  President  and 
George  CHnton  of  New  York,  as  their  Presidential 
candidates.  Burr  had  come  too  near  the  Presi- 
dency in  1804  to  be  made  prominent  again  with 
Jefferson's  consent.  He  was  therefore  dropped, 
and  Clinton  took  his  place.  The  Federalists  of- 
fered  as  their  candidates  Charles  C.  Pinckney,  of 
South  Carolina,  and  Rufus  King,  of  New  York. 
The  Presidential  Election  in  November  re- 
sulted in  the  overwhelming  defeat  of  the  Federal- 
ists, who  carried  only  Connecticut  and  Delaware, 
with  two  electors  in  Maryland. 

12.  Congress  met  November  5th,  1804.  The 
Vlllth  Congress,     Session  was  mainly  occupied 

2d  Session.  by  the    Trial  of    Judge 

Chase  by  the  Senate,  on  articles  of  impeachment 
prepared  by  the  House  at  its  last  Session.  Unfor- 
tunately  the  trial  became  a  party  struggle.  The 
Federalists  espoused  the  cause  of  Judge  Chase, 
and  the  Republicans  were  determined  to  convict 
him.  Vice-President  Burr,  who  presided  at  the 
trial,  had  shot  Hamilton  in  a  duel  near  New  York 
in  July,  1804,  and  thus  deprived  the  Federalists  of 
their  ablest  leader.  But  his  impartiality  and  con- 
tempt for  party  demands  during  the  Chase  trial 
went   far  to   induce  them   to  condone  his  offense. 


1805.]  Trial  of  Judge  Chase.  63 

A  sufficient  number  of  Senators  did  not  vote  to 
condemn  Judge  Chase  on  any  one  charge,  and  he 
was  found  not  guilty  on  all.  The  angry  disappoint- 
ment of  the  Republicans  led  them  to  introduce 
several  Amendments  to  make  impeachment  and 
conviction  more  easy  and  certain,  but  none  were 
adopted.  In  February,  1805,  the  electoral  votes 
were  counted,  and  were  found  to  be,  162  for  Jeffer- 
son and  Clinton,  and  14  for  Pinckney  and  King. 
Jefferson  and  Clinton  were  therefore  declared 
elected.  March  3d,  1805,  Congress  adjourned,  and 
March  4th  Jefferson  and  Clinton  were  sworn  into 
office. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

riFTH    ADMINISTRATION,   1805-1809. 

Thomas  Jefferson,  President.  George  Clinton,  Vice-President. 

IXth  and  Xth  Congresses. 

1.  Congress  met  December  2d,  1805,  with  an 
IXth  Congress,     overwhelming  Republican  ma- 

ist  Session.  jority  in  both  branches.  Na- 
thaniel Macon  was  again  chosen  Speaker  in  the 
House.  Federalism  still  retained  control  of  New 
England,  with  the  exception  of  Vermont.  In  the 
other  States  it  seemed  to  be  dead  or  dying.  But 
New  England's  influence  was  so  much  greater  than 
its  proportionate  size  that  the  party  which  con- 
trolled it  was  certain  to  be  at  least  a  strong  minority 
in  national  politics. 

2.  The  Napoleonic  wars  still  continued,  and  Great 
Britain  and  France  were  using  every  expedient  to 
cripple  each  other,  without  regard  to  the  rights  of 
neutral  nations.  While  the  President  was  anxious 
to  defend  American  commerce,  he  was  averse  to 
increasing  the  expenses  of  his  Administration  by 
building  a  navy.  He  therefore  recommended,  and 
Congress  adopted,  a  plan  for   the  building   of   a 

64 


1805.]  The  Randolph  Factiofu  65 

number  of  small  gun-boats,  as  more  economical 
than  ships  of  war.  This  "  Gun-boat  System  " 
was  always  hateful  to  the  navy,  and  was  a  constant 
object  of  Federalist  ridicule  and  attack. 

3.  The  President  again  called  the  attention  of 
Congress  to  the  unfriendly  actions  of  the  Spanish 
authorities  at  New  Orleans.  His  Message  on  this 
subject  was  referred  to  a  committee  of  which  Ran- 
dolph, of  Virginia,  was  chairman.  Randolph  had 
been  one  of  the  Republican  leaders  while  the  party 
was  in  opposition,  but  his  irritable  spirit  disquali^ 
fied  him  for  heading  an  Administration  party.  He 
could  attack,  but  could  not  defend.  He  had  taken 
offense  at  the  President's  refusal  to  make  him  Min- 
ister to  England,  and  immediately  took  sides  with 
the  Federalists,  followed  by  a  number  of  his  friends, 
though  not  sufficient  to  give  the  Federalists  a  ma- 
jority. Randolph's  committee  reported  resolutions 
which  the  Republicans  voted  down,  on  the  ground 
that  they  were  calculated  to  provoke  a  needless 
collision  with  Spain.  A  substitute  was  then  passed 
authorizing  the  President  to  purchase  the  Floridas 
from  Spain.'  This  was  afterward  modified  by  a 
resolution  that  it  was  advisable  to  exchange  a  part 
of  Louisiana  for  East  and  West  Florida.  The 
Randolph  faction,  popularly  called  "  Quids,"  gave 
fresh  life  to  the  Federalists  in  Congress,  and  made 
them  an  active  and  useful  opposition  party. 

4.  Through  the  first  three  months  of  1806  various 

I  This  was  not  e£[acxa4,  however,  until  i8i^ 


66  American  Politics.  [1806 

resolutions  were  offered  in  Congress,  loc  king  toward 
Retaliation  upon  England.  They  culminated 
in  the  adoption  of  an  Act  to  prohibit  the  importa- 
tion of  certain  English  goods  after  November  15th. 
The  vote  upon  this  bill  (93  to  32  in  the  House,  and 
19  to  9  in  the  Senate)  is  a  fair  statement  of  the 
Administration  majority  at  this  Session.  Another 
unsuccessful  attempt  was  made  to  facilitate  the  re- 
moval of  Federal  Judges.  The  increase  of  loose 
constructionist  ideas  among  the  Republicans  was 
marked  by  the  passage  of  a  bill  for  the  construc- 
tion of  a  National  Road  from  Maryland  to 
Ohio.'     Congress  adjourned  April  21st,  1806. 

5.  The  summer  of  1806  was  spent  by  the  *'  quids  *' 
in  efforts  to  bring  Monroe  back  from  his  Mission  to 
England,  to  be  used  as  a  Presidential  candidate 
against  Madison,  whom  the  President  was  supposed 
to  favor.  The  late  Vice-President,  Burr,  came  up 
again  to  public  notice,  by  a  mysterious  expedition 
down  the  Mississippi,  by  which  he  hoped  to  retrieve 
his  fallen  fortunes.  It  was  not  known  whether  its 
object  was  colonization,  an  attack  upon  the  Span- 
ish possessions,  or  the  founding  of  an  independent 
western  empire.  The  President,  by  proclamation, 
cautioned  all  citizens  not  to  engage  in  the  enter- 
prise, and  gave  orders  for  Burr's  arrest. 

6.  Congress  met  December  ist,  1806.  The  Pres- 


I  This  was  the  first  appearance  of  the  question  of  making  Internal  Im- 
Brovements  at  Federal  Expense,  which  afterwarii  divided  parties  from 
1830  until  1856. 


iSO/.]  Burrs  Expedition,  67 

IXth  Congress,  ident's  Message  called  at> 
2d  Session.  tention  to  the  growing  excess 
of  receipts  over  expenditures,  and  suggested 
Amendments  to  the  Constitution  giving  Congress 
the  doubted  power  to  expend  the  surplus  on  roads, 
canals,  and  education.  No  action  was  taken  upon 
them.  The  Act  prohibiting  importations  from 
England,  passed  at  the  last  Session,  was  suspended 
until  July  ist,  1807,  and  the  President  was  given 
discretionary  power  to  suspend  it  until  December. 

7.  January  22d,  1807,  the  President  sent  to  Con- 
gress the  dispatches  which  showed  the  progress  of 
Burr's  Expedition  up  to  that  time.  The  Senate, 
in  great  alarm,  passed  unanimously  a  bill  to  sus- 
pend the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  for  three  months,  a 
measure  repugnant  to  all  the  principles  of  the  domi- 
nant party.  Three  days  afterward  the  House  re- 
jected the  bill,  by  a  vote  nearly  unanimous.  Con- 
gress adjourned  March  3d,  1807.  Burr's  expedi- 
tion had  by  this  time  disbanded,  and  its  leader  was 
on  his  way  to  Virginia,  to  be  tried  for  treason,  his 
enterprise  having  been  begun  within  the  limits  of 
that  State. 

8.  In  December,  1806,  a  Treaty  with  England 
had  been  arranged,  which  was  almost  identical  with 
Jay's  treaty  of  1795.  As  it  left  England  at  liberty 
to  impress  American  seamen,  and  to  search  Ameri- 
can ships,  the  President  rejected  it,  without  laying 
it  before  the  Senate,  and  tried  further  negotiation, 
but  without  success.     His  action  was  supported  by 


68  American  Politics.  [i^C/ 

the  Republicans,  and  attacked  by  the  Federalists, 
who  were  the  commercial  part  of  the  community, 
and  were  anxious  for  almost  any  treaty  with  Eng- 
land. The  rejection  of  this  treaty  embittered 
English  feeling  against  the  United  States,  and  was 
probably  a  leading  cause  of  the  renewed  English 
aggressions,  the  Embargo,  and  the  War  of  1812. 

9.  Burr's  Examination  began  in  May,  1807, 
before  the  Grand  Jury  in  Richmond,  Va.  It  took 
a  party  aspect  almost  from  the  beginning.  The 
Federalists  considered  Burr's  arrest  an  Executive 
usurpation  of  power.  The  President  was  deter- 
mined that  the  result  of  the  trial  should  justify  his 
action,  and  became  notorious  for  his  interference 
in  the  management  of  the  case.  His  letters  to  the 
District  Attorney  were  frequent,  and  his  anxiety  for 
Burr's  conviction  roused  the  Federalists  to  greater 
exertions  for  Burr's  acquittal.  The  counsel  for  de- 
fense even  caused  a  writ  to  be  served  upon  the 
President,  commanding  his  personal  attendance  as 
a  witness.  The  President  refused  to  obey,  on  the 
ground  of  public  inconvenience,  and  the  matter  was 
not  pressed.  The  Grand  Jury  found  an  indictment 
against  Burr.  His  trial  came  on  in  August,  before 
Chief  Justice  Marshall,  and  resulted  in  his  acquittal 
for  want  of  jurisdiction.  The  administration  was 
thus  defeated,  and  abandoned  any  further  earnest 
prosecution  of  Aaron  Burr. 

10.  In  June,  1807,  the  British  frigate  Leopard, 
off  Hampton  Roads,  had  taken  by  force  four  sea- 


iSo/.]  The  Chesapeake  Out  rag.'.  69 

men  from  the  United  States  frigate  Chesapeake, 
after  a  shamefully  feeble  resistance.  Both  political 
parties  joined  heartily  in  the  indignation  excited  by 
this  outrage,  and  war  with  England  would  have 
been  everywhere  popular,  for  the  day  was  past  when 
parties  were  ready  to  go  all  lengths  in  support  of 
either  France  or  England.  The  President  was 
anxious  for  peace,  and  left  the  matter  to  be  settled, 
some  years  afterward,  by  negotiation.  It  would  be 
out  of  place  to  discuss  here  the  alternating  attacks 
on  neutral  rights  by  the  great  European  beUiger- 
ents,  before  and  after  this  date,  the  proclamation  by 
England  of  a  paper  blockade  of  the  whole  French 
coast,  the  counter  proclamation  by  France  of  a 
paper  blockade  of  the  British  islands,  the  Orders  in 
Council  to  the  English  navy  to  search  neutral  ves- 
sels for  French  goods,  and  the  counter  orders  to 
the  French  navy  to  capture  every  vessel  which 
should  submit  to  such  search.'  England's  power 
being  the  greater  on  the  ocean,  her  aggressions  bore 
most  heavily  on  the. United  States,  whose  commerce 
was  rapidly  being  destroyed. 

II.  The  President,  by  proclamation,  had  warned 
Xth  Congress,  all  British  armed  vessels  not  to 
1st  Session.  enter  American  ports,  and  had 
called  an  early  session  of  Congress.  It  met  Octo- 
ber 26th,  1807,  with  a  Republican  majority  in  both 
branches.  In  the  House  a  Republican,  Joseph  B. 
Varnum,  of    Massachusetts,  was    chosen   Speaker. 

I  Jefferson,  in  a  private  letter,  said  that  "  England  seemed  to  have  be 
come  a  den  of  pirates,  and  France  a  den  of  thieves." 


yo  American  Politics.  [1808 

The  President  recommended  a  bill  by  which  Ameri- 
can vessels  should  be  prohibited  from  all  foreign 
trade,  and  foreign  vessels  from  taking  cargoes 
from  the  United  States  ;  all  coasting  vessels  should 
be  required  to  give  bonds  to  land  their  cargoes 
in  the  United  States.  This  was  the  celebrated 
Embargo  Bill,  which  destroyed,  for  the  time,  all 
American  commerce,  intensified  party  feeling,  and 
even  threatened  the  existence  of  the  Union.  It 
was  passed  by  strict  party  votes,  being  opposed 
vehemently  by  the  Federalists  and  qiiids^  on  the 
ground  that  it  would  injure  the  United  States  rather 
than  England,  and  would  complete  the  commercial 
ruin  which  foreign  attacks  had  begun.  Having 
given  the  President  the  power  of  suspending  the 
Embargo  Act  whenever  it  should  seem  advisable  to 
him  to  do  so.  Congress  adjourned  April  25th,  1808. 
12.  Presidential  Nominations  were  made  at 
this  Session  by  Congressional  caucuses.  The  Re- 
publicans nominated  James  Madison,  of  Virginia, 
for  President,  and  George  Clinton,  of  New  York, 
for  Vice-President.  Madison's  chief  competitors 
for  the  nomination  were  James  Monroe,  who  was 
supported  by  the  quids  of  the  Virginia  Assembly, 
and  George  Clinton,  who  was  supported  by  a  part 
of  the  New  York  Republicans.  The  Federalists 
nominated  C.  C.  Pinckney,  of  South  Carolina,  for 
President,  and  Rufus  King,  of  New  York,  for  Vice- 
President.  The  President  had  been  requested  by 
the  Legislatures  of  most  of  the  Republican  States 
to  accept  a  third  term,  but  declined. 


j8o8.]    Presidential  Election. — Embargo.         yi 

13.  During  the  summer  of  1808  the  Embargo 
began  to  bear  so  heavily  on  the  commercial  interests 
of  New  England  and  the  Middle  States  that  their 
complaints  drowned  other  subjects  of  discussion, 
and  took  away  much  of  the  excitement  of  a  Presi- 
dential election.  The  remaining  strength  of  the 
Federalists  was  concentrated  in  these  States,  so 
that  party  bitterness  aggravated  financial  distress. 
It  was  said  that  the  Republican  States  had  devised 
the  Embargo  as  a  substitute  for  war,  because  its  ill 
effects  would  fall  mainly  upon  the  Federalist  States. 
There  was  every  indication  that  New  England 
would  obey  it  with  reluctance.  The  choice,  how- 
ever, lay  between  war,  an  embargo,  or  submission. 
For  the  latter  there  were  very  few  advocates.  The 
war  party  was  divided,  some  of  its  members  wish- 
ing for  war  against  England,  others  for  war  against 
France,  and  still  others  for  war  against  both.  The 
great  majority  of  the  people  still  favored  the 
Embargo,  and  the  Presidential  Election  in  No- 
vember resulted  largely  in  favor  of  the  Republi- 
cans. New  England  stood  almost  alone  in  choosing 
Federalist  electors. 

14.  Congress  met  November  7th,  1808.  Its  pro- 
Xth  Congress,     ceedings  were  confined  to  reso- 

2d  Session.  lutions  and  protests  against 
French  and  English  aggressions,  and  the  rejection 
of  Federalist  resolutions  to  repeal  the  Embargo, 
until  February,  1809.  U\  that  month  John  Quincy 
Adams,  who  had  resigned  the  Massachusetts 
Senatorship  because  his  support  of  the  Embargo 


J 2  American  Politics.  [1809 

had  been  disapproved '  by  his  State  Legislature, 
informed  the  President  that  the  Embargo  could 
no  longer  be  enforced  in  New  England,  that  the 
Federalist  leaders  had  made  all  arrangements  to 
break  off  from  federal  relations  with  the  rest  of 
the  Union  unless  the  Act  was  repealed,  and  that  an 
agent  from  the  Canadas  was  then  in  New  England 
to  offer  the  assistance  of  the  English  Government 
to  the  scheme.* 

15.  Adams's  warning  impressed  the  President 
and  the  Republican  leaders  so  much  that  they  at 
once  secured  the  passage  of  a  modification  of  the 
Embargo,  known  as  the  Non-Intercourse  Act. 
By  this  the  Embargo  was  repealed,  after  March 
4th,  as  to  commerce  with  all  nations  excepting  Eng- 
land and  France.  It  was  hoped  that  this  would 
quiet  the  excitement  in  New  England,  without  yield- 
ing the  principle  of  the  Embargo. 

16.  In  February  the  electoral  votes  were  counted, 
and  were  found  to  be,  for  President,  122  for  James 
Madison,  6  for  George  Clinton,  and  47  for  C.  C. 
Pinckney,  and  for  Vice-President,  113  for  George 
Clinton,  47  for  Rufus  King,  and  15  scattering. 
Madison  and  Clinton  were  therefore  declared 
elected.  March  3d,  1809,  Congress  adjourned,  and 
March  4th  Madison  and  Clinton  were  sworn  into 
office. 


I  Adams's  accuracy  has  been  denied,  and  it  has  even  been  asserted  that 
his  appointment,  soon  after,  as  Minister  to  Russia  was  the  reward  of  his 
wilful  falsification. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

SIXTH    ADMINISTRATION,    1809-1813. 

James  Madison,  Px-esident.  Gteorge  Clinton,  Vice-President. 

Xlth  and  Xllth  Congresses. 

I.  The  Difficulties  with  England  were 
Xlth  Congress,  complicated,  at  the  beginning 
Extra  Session,  of  Madison's  term  of  office,  by 
an  unfortunate  mistake  of  the  British  Minister,  Mr. 
Erskine,  caused  by  his  desire  for  peace.  Shortly 
after  the  inauguration  he  informed  the  President 
that  he  was  authorized  by  his  Government  to  with- 
draw the  objectionable  orders  to  the  English  navy. 
The  President  therefore,  by  proclamation,  sum- 
moned a  Special  Session  of  Congress  to  meet  May 
22(1,  1809,  and  suspended  the  Non-Intercourse 
Act,  as  applied  to  England,  after  June  loth.  This 
he  was  authorized  to  do  by  the  terms  of  the  Act. 
Congress  met  on  the  day  appointed,  with  a  Repub- 
lican majority  in  both  branches.  In  the  House 
Speaker  Varnum  was  re-elected,  England  had  in 
the  mean  time  disavowed  her  Minister's  offer,  and 
recalled  him,  and  a  new  proclamation  by  the  Presi- 
dent restored  the  Non-Intercourse  Act  as  before. 
The  Federalists  represented  the  whole  misunder- 
standing as  a  Republican  trick  to  influence  the 
73 


74  American   Politics.  \  i809 

elections.      There   being   no   business   to    occupy 
Congress,  it  adjourned  June  28th. 

2.  Congress  met  November  27th,  1809.  The 
Xlth  Congress,     Republican  majority   was  so 

ISt  Session.  large  that  every  Administra- 
tion measure  was  promptly  carried,  and  there  was 
little  party  conflict.  A  continuance  of  the  Non- 
Intercourse  Act  was  voted.  Mr.  Erskine's  suc- 
cessor had  contradicted  the  Secretary  of  State  so 
frequently  and  so  offensively  that  Congress,  by  a 
strict  party  vote,  passed  a  resolution  declaring  his 
Language  to  be  insolent,  and  requesting  the  Presi- 
dent to  recognize  him  no.  longer.  Congress  ad- 
journed May  ISt,  1810. 

3.  Congress  met  December  3d,  18 10.  France 
Xlth  Congress,     had  managed  so  adroitly  as  to 

2d  Session.  leave  it  in  doubt  whether  her 
objectionable  decrees  had  been  withdrawn  or  not. 
The  Republicans  chose  to  consider  them  with- 
drawn, and  repealed  the  Non-Intercourse  Act,  as 
applied  to  France.  The  President  endeavored  to 
induce  England  to  withdraw  her  Orders  in  Coun- 
cil, but  this  was  refused  on  the  ground  that  there 
was  no  evidence  of  any  repeal  by  France.  The 
Non-Intercourse  Act  was  therefore  continued 
against  England. 

4.  An  effort  was  made  at  this  Session  to  re- 
charter  the  National  Bank,  which  had  been 
chartered  in  1791  for  twenty  years.  Opposition  to 
such    a   bank   was   a    necessary   article   of   belief 


l8ii.]  Adopt ioti  of  a  War  Policy.  75 

among  Strict  Constructionists.  But  the  corpora- 
tion had  so  many  Republican  friends  in  Congress 
that  a  bill  to  re-charter  it  was  favorably  reported 
by  the  committees  of  both  branches,  and  after  long 
debate  was  defeated  by  a  majority  of  only  one  vote 
in  the  House,  and  by  the  casting  vote  of  the  Vice- 
President  in  the  Senate.  Thereupon  the  Bank 
wound  up  its  business,  and  ceased  to  act.  Con- 
gress adjourned  March  3d,. 181 1. 

5.  Congress  met  November  4th,  181 1.  The  Re- 
Xllth  Congress,     publican    majority    was    still 

1st  Session.  overwhelmingly  large,  but  it 

contained  several  rising  and  energetic  members, 
who  afterward  became  party  leaders,  and  who  were 
now  successfully  urging  upon  the  party  a  Change 
of  Policy.  Hitherto  Jefferson  and  J^Iadison  had 
made  it  a  peace  party,  and  had  carefully  avcided 
direct  conflict  with  France  or  England.  The  cap- 
ture of  over  900  American  merchant  vessels  since 
1803  had  been  no  more  effectual  than  such  isolated 
outrages  as  the  Chesapeake  case  in  rousing  the 
Administration  to  the  idea  of  forcible  resistance. 
Under  the  new  leaders  the  Republicans  became  a 
war  party.  Henry  Clay,  of  Kentucky,  was  chosen 
Speaker  of  the  House.  William  H.  Crawford, 
of  Georgia,  in  the  Senate,  and  John  C.  Calhoun, 
of  South  Carolina,  in  the  House,  became  the  recog- 
nized Congressional  leaders  of  the  party.  The 
economical  and  retrenching  policy  of  Jefferson  was 
abandoned,  and  preparations  were  begun  for  hos- 


^6  American  Politics.  [1812 

tilities,  against  the  opposition  of  the  Federalists, 
and  the  timid  or  peace  loving  Republicans.  Bills 
were  passed  to  enlist  men,  to  organize  the  militia, 
and  to  equip  and  enlarge  the  navy. 

6.  The  President  was  given  to  understand 
that  his  nomination  for  a  second  term  of  office  de- 
pended upon  his  adoption  of  the  war  policy  and 
that  his  refusal  to  do  so  would  cause  the  nomina- 
tion of  De  Witt  Clinton,  of  New  York,  in  his  stead. 
Thus  pressed  the  President  yielded,  and  was  con- 
sequently renominated  by  the  usual  caucus  of  Re- 
publican members  of  Congress,  with  Elbridge 
Gerry,  of  Massachusetts,  for  Vice-President.  Clin- 
ton refused  to  be  bound  by  this  bargain,  and,  hav- 
ing been  nominated  by  a  Republican  caucus  of  the 
New  York  Legislature,  persisted  in  his  candidacy. 
To  profit  by  this  promising  division  among  the 
Republicans,  a  caucus  of  leading  Federalists,  held 
in  New  York  City,  decided  to  support  Clinton,  with 
Jared  IngersoU,  of  Pennsylvania,  for  Vice-Presi- 
dent. 

7.  In  March,  181 2,  the  President  took  the  first 
step  in  fulfillment  of  his  bargain  by  sending  to 
Congress,  with  a  special  Message,  certain  docu- 
ments, which  he  had  purchased  from  one  John 
Henry  for  $50,000.  Henry  claimed  to  have  been 
the  agent  sent  from  Canada  in  1809  to  detach  the 
New  England  Federalists  from  their  allegiance  to 
the  Union,  and  his  documents  purported  to  show 
the  complicity   of  the   British   Government.     The 


1 8 12.]  Declaration  of  War.  77 

British  Minister  solemnly  denied  all  knowledge  of, 
or  belief  in,  any  such  agent,  but  Congress,  by  reso- 
lution, proclaimed  Henry's  documents  authentic, 
and  denounced  England's  perfidious  attack  on  the 
unity  of  a  friendly  nation.  The  principal  effect  of 
this  episode  was  to  outrage  and  exasperate  the 
Federalists  of  New  England. 

8.  As  a  preliminary  to  war  an  Embargo  was 
laid  upon  American  shipping  for  90  days.  The 
British  Minister  finally  declared.  May  30th,  that  his 
Government  would  not  recede  from  its  policy 
toward  neutrals.  Dispatches  from  the  American 
agent  in  London  informed  the  President  that  the 
same  declaration  had  been  made  by  the  English 
Ministry  in  Parliament.  The  President  therefore 
sent  a  Message  to  Congress,  June  ist,  reviewing 
the  past  and  present  difficulties  with  Great  Britain. 
It  was  referred  to  a  committee,  whose  report  was  a 
summary  of  American  grievances  against  England; 
the  impressment  of  American  seamen,  the  Orders 
in  Council,  the  system  of  paper  blockades,  and  the 
refusal  to  settle  American  claims  for  damages.  It 
concluded  by  recommending  a  declaration  of 
war. 

9.  An  Act  was  consequently  passed,  and  signed 
by  the  President,  June  i8th,  declaring  that  a  State 
of  War  existed  between  the  United  Kingdom  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland  and  its  dependencies, 
and  the  United  States  of  America.  Of  the  98 
members  who  voted  for  the  war  76  were   from  the 


78  America n  Politics,  [i8i2 

South  and  West.  On  the  following  day  the  Presi- 
dent's proclamation  announced  that  the  war  had 
begun.  We  have  nothing  to  do  with  its  events 
except  as  they  influenced  politics  in  the  United 
States.  It  was  soon  learned  that  the  Orders  in 
Council  had  been  revoked  in  London  five  days  after 
the  declaration  of  war,  but  the  revocation  came  too 
late.  Even  if  it  had  been  made  in  time,  the  war 
party  would  probably  have  insisted  upon  the  aban- 
donment by  England  of  the  right  of  search  and  im- 
pressment, and  would  have  declared  war  on  that 
issue.  Congress  adjourned  July  6th,  1812.  April 
30th  Louisiana  had  become  a  State  of  the 
Union. 

10.  The  Presidential  Election  in  November 
resulted  in  the  success  of  a  large  majority  of  Re- 
publican electors,  and  of  members  of  the  Xlllth 
Congress  pledged  to  support  the  Administration  and 
the  war.  But  the  Opposition  to  the  War  was 
manifested  by  every  legal  method  from  its  very 
beginning.  Immediately  after  the  declaration  the 
Federalist  members  of  Congress  had  published 
their  protest  against  it  in  an  address  to  their  con- 
stituents. Under  the  Act  passed  by  Congress  to 
embody  the  militia,  requisitions  were  made  by  the 
President  upon  the  Governors  of  the  different 
States  for  their  respective  quotas.  The  Governors 
of  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut  refused  to  allow 
their  militia  to  leave  their  States  on  the  ground 
that  the   Federal  Government  could  not  constitu- 


1 8 1 3  •]        Formation  of  a  Peace  Party.  79 

tionally  call  out  the  militia  until  an  invasion  had 
taken  place,  or  the  laws  of  the  United  States  had 
been  resisted.  In  this,  as  in  many  other  instances 
throughout  the  war,  the  possession  of  power  by  the 
Republicans  inclined  them  toward  a  loose  con- 
struction of  the  Constitution,  and  the  Federalists 
toward  a  strict  construction  of  it. 

II.     Congress  met   November   2d,    1812.      The 
Xllth  Congress,     large    Republican     majority 
2d  Session.  prevented  any  party  contest. 

The  Randolph  faction,  or  Quids,  had  ceased  to 
have  a  separate  existence  after  its  failure  to  nomi- 
nate Monroe.  Most  of  its  members  were  now  sup- 
porters of  the  Administration.  The  remainder, 
with  the  Federalists  and  those  Republicans  who 
opposed  the  war,  had  formed  a  **  Peace  Party." 
But  their  defection  was  more  than  compensated  by 
the  number  of  Federalists  whom  it  drove  into  po- 
litical union  with  the  war  party.  In  Congress  both 
parties  united  in  rewarding,  encouraging,  and  in- 
creasing the  Navy,  whose  brilliant  exploits  had 
intoxicated  the  whole  nation  with  the  unexpected 
consciousness  that  it  alone,  of  all  the  nations  of  the 
earth,  could  match  and  master  England  upon  her 
own  element,  the  ocean.  This  Session  was  occu- 
pied mainly  in  measures  necessary  for  the  active 
prosecution  of  the  war,  which  were  all  passed  by 
party  votes.  In  February  the  electoral  votes  were 
counted  and  were  found  to  be,  for  President,  128 
for  Madison,   and   89   for  Clinton,   and,  for  Vice* 


8o  American  Politics.  [1813 

President,  131  for  Gerry,  and  86  for  Ingersoll. 
Madison  and  Gerry  were  therefore  declared 
elected.  March  3d,  1813,  Congress  adjourned,  and 
March  4th  Madison  and  Gerry  were  sworn  into 
office. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

SEVENTH    ADMINISTRATION,    1813-1817. 

James  Madison,  Presitient.  Elbridee  Qerry,  Vice-President. 

Xlllth  and  XlVth  Congrresses. 

1.  Congress  met  May  24111,  1813,  having  been 
Xlllth  Congress,     summoned  by  the  President 

Extra  Session.       to  a  Special   Session  to 

consider  the  difficulties  encountered  in  raising 
money  for  the  War.  The  President's  Message  also 
mentioned  the  proffered  mediation  of  the  Czar  of 
Russia,  which  England  afterward  decHned.  In  the 
House  Henry  Clay,  of  Kentucky,  was  chosen 
Speaker,  and  the  vote  (89  to  54)  represents  the 
Administration  majority.  The  Republican  ma- 
jority in  the  Senate  was  weakened  by  a  faction 
opposed  to  the  Administration.  The  business  of 
this  Session  was  mainly  routine.  Congress  ad- 
journed August  2d. 

2.  The  Dislike  to  the  War  and  its  manage- 
ment became  more  apparent  as  it  went  on.  The 
Connecticut  Legislature  had  declared  it  to  be  the 
solemn  and  deliberate  opinion  of  the  people  of  that 
State  that  the  war  was  unnecessary.  So  notorious 
was  the  general  feeling  of  the  Eastern  States  that 
England  had  endeavored  to  mark  the  political   di- 

6  81 


82  American  Politics.  [1S13 

vision  between  New  England  and  the  rest  of  the 
Union  by  exempting  Massachusetts  (which  in- 
cluded the  present  State  of  Maine)  Rhode  Island, 
and  New  Hampshire,  from  the  blockade  of  the 
Atlantic  Coast. 

3.  Congress    met    December   6th,    18 13.      This 
Xlllth  Congress,     Session    was  also  occupied 

1st  Session.  chiefly    with    routine    busi- 

ness, and  in  efforts  to  improve  the  condition  of  the 
finances.  Illicit  trade  from  the  New  England 
coast  to  the  English  ships  had  become  so  common 
that  a  New  Embargo  Act  was  passed,  applying 
to  all  vessels,  large  or  small.  Congress  adjourned 
April  1 8th,  18 14.  In  August  occurred  the  sack 
and  burning  of  Washington  by  an  English  expedi- 
tion, an  affair  almost  equally  disgraceful  to  both 
nations.' 

4.  Congress  met  September  19th,  1814.     Nego- 
Xlllth  Congress,     tiations  for   Peace   had 

2d  Session.  been  begun  in  August.    Na- 

poleon  was,  for  the  time,  overthrown,  and  the 
American  Government  was  anxious  for  almost  any 
honorable  peace,  in  preference  to  continuing  the 
war  with  England.  The  Orders  in  Council  had 
been  revoked  long  before,  and  the  American  Com- 
missioners were  instructed  not  to  insist  upon  the 
other  object  of  the  war,  the  abandonment  of  the 
rights  of  search  and  impressment.  The  English 
demands  rose  as  those   of  the  United  States  fell. 

T  The  President  barely  escaped  capture. 


1813.]  opposition  to  the  War,  S3 

England  now  insisted  that  an  independent  Indian 
nation  should  be  organized  between  Canada  and 
the  United  States,  and  that  the  United  States 
should  maintain  no  fleet  or  military  posts  on  Ihe 
Great  Lakes. 

5.  The  publication  of  these  conditions  in  Octo- 
ber again  roused  the  war  feeling  of  the  Republi- 
cans, and  some  of  their  leaders  began  to  meditate 
measures  which  the  strict  constructionist  principles 
of  the  party  could  not  justify.  The  Secretary  of 
War  proposed  the  increase  of  the  army  by  a  draft, 
or  conscription.  The  Secretary  of  the  Navy  pro- 
posed to  introduce  the  English  system  of  impress- 
ment of  seamen.  To  Republicans  generally  such 
measures  seemed  unconstitutional,  and  they  were 
rejected,  though  strongly  urged  by  the  Adminis- 
tration. Fresh  discontent  was  excited  by  a  bill 
offered  in  the  Senate,  allowing  officers  of  the  army 
to  enlist  minors  over  18  years  old  without  con- 
sent of  their  parents  or  guardians.  The  Connecti- 
cut Legislature  ordered  the  Governor  to  resist  the 
execution  of  these  and  similar  measures,  if  they 
should  become  laws. 

6.  The  commercial  distress  in  New  England,  the 
possession  by  the  enemy  of  a  large  part  of  the  Dis- 
trict of  Maine,  the  fear  of  their  advance  along  the 
coast,  and  the  apparent  neglect  of  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment to  provide  any  adequate  means  of  resist- 
ance, had  led  the  Legislature  of  Massachusetts, 
in  October,  to  invite  the  other  New  England  States 


84  Ainerica?t  Politics.  [1814 

to  send  d&legates  to  Hartford,  Connecticut,  "to 
confer  upon  the  subject  of  their  public  grievances." 
Delegates  from  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island  and 
Connecticut,  and  from  parts  of  Vermont  and  New 
Hampshire,  met  at  Hartford  in  December  and  re- 
mained in  session  for  three  weeks.  In  their  Re- 
port to  their  State  Legislatures  they  reviewed  the 
state  of  the  country,  the  origin  and  management 
of  the  war,  and  the  strong  measures  lately  pro- 
posed in  Congress,  and  recommended  several 
Amendments  to  the  Constitution,  chiefly  with  in- 
tent to  restrict  the  powers  of  Congress  over  com- 
merce, and  to  prevent  naturalized  citizens  from 
holding  office.  In  default  of  the  adoption  of  these 
Amendments,  another  convention  was  advised,  "  in 
order  to  decide  on  the  course  which  a  crisis  so  mo- 
mentous might  seem  to  demand." 

7.  This  was  the  famous  Hartford  Convention. 
The  peace  which  closely  followed  its  adjournment 
removed  all  necessity  or  even  desire  for  another 
session  of  it.  Its  objects  seem  to  have  been  legiti- 
mate. But  the  unfortunate  secrecy  of  its  proceed- 
ings, and  its  somewhat  ambiguous  language,  roused 
a  popular  suspicion,  sufficient  for  the  political  ruin 
of  its  members,  that  a  dissolution  of  the  Union  had 
been  proposed,  perhaps  resolved  upon,  in  its  meet- 
ings. Some  years  afterward  those  concerned  in  it 
were  compelled  in  self-defense  to  publish  its  jour- 
nal, in  order  to  show  that  no  treasonable  design  was 
officially  proposed.     It  was  then,  however,  too  late, 


i8i4-]      Extinction  of  tJie  Federal  Party.         85 

for  the  popular  opinion  had  become  flxed.  Neither 
the  Federal  party  which  originated,  nor  the  Feder- 
alist politicians  who  composed  the  assembly  were 
ever  freed  from  the  stigma  left  by  the  mysterious 
Hartford  Convention. 

8.  In  February,  1815,  the  welcome  and  unex- 
pected news  of  Peace  reached  Congress.  It  was 
welcome  to  the  Administration,  whose  inexperience 
in  the  conduct  of  the  war  had  involved  it  in  great 
financial  straits,  to  the  Federalists,  who  considered 
the  war  iniquitous,  and  even  to  the  war  party,  who 
had  begun  to  anticipate  a  single  contest  with  Eng- 
land. Therefore  the  peace,  which  actually  secured 
not  one  of  the  objects  for  which  war  had  been  de- 
clared, occasioned  rejoicings  which  would  have  been 
more  appropriate  for  a  more  successful  termination 
of  the  war.  The  rest  of  this  Session  was  neces- 
sarily spent  in  the  active  reduction  of  government 
to  a  peace  establishment,  with  the  exception  of 
the  navy,  and  in  the  reduction  of  expenses.  The 
Acts  which  had  been  necessary  in  preparing  for  or 
carrying  on  the  war  were  repealed.  Congress  ad- 
journed March  3d,  1815. 

9.  The  close  of  the  war  marks  the  final  Extinct- 
ion of  the  Federal  Party.  The  few  remaining 
Federalists  from  this  time  began  to  desist  from  any 
united  party  action.  The  whole  people  composed 
one  party  whose  principles  were  neither  those  of 
the  original  Federal,  nor  those  of  the  original  Re- 
publican party,  but  a  combination   of  both.     The 


86  American  Politics.  [iS^S 

cardinal  principle  of  the  Federal  party,  the  preser- 
aiion  and  perpetuity  of  the  Federal  Government, 
had  been  quietly  accepted  and  adopted  by  the  Re- 
publicans, while  the  Republican  principle  of  limit- 
ing the  Federal  Government's  powers  and  duties 
had  been  adoped  by  the  Federalists  when  the  Fed- 
eral Government  had  fallen  into  Republican  hands. 
But,  though  the  principles  of  the  Federalists  had 
made  an  abiding  impression  upon  the  form  of  gov- 
ernment, their  party  opposition  to  the  war  had  made 
the  name  so  unsavory  that  it  soon  began  to  fall 
into  disuse. 

10.  Congress  met   December  4th,  1815,   with  a 
XlVth  Congress,     large    Republican   majority 

1st  Session.  in  both    branches.     In  the 

House  Henry  Clay  was  again  chosen  Speaker. 
This  Session  was  occupied  chiefly  by  the  regula- 
tion of  Internal  Affairs,  which  occasioned  but 
little  party  contest.  Taxes  were  reduced,  and 
slight  changes  were  made  in  the  Tariff.  Some 
indications  appeared,  during  the  debate,  of  a 
growing  feeling  among  Republicans  that  the  Tariff 
ought  to  be  so  arranged  as  to  give  protection 
to  those  manufactures  which  had  sprung  up  in 
America  during  the  war,  and  while  the  tendency 
of  the  bill  adopted  was  distinctly  protective,  its 
purpose  was  temporarily  thwarted  by  the  condition 
of  trade. 

11.  The   spread   of  loose  constructionist   ideas 
among  the  Republicans  was  marked  in  April,  1816, 


i8i5-]  TJie  National  Bank.  8/ 

by  the  passage  of  a  bill  for  the  charter  of  a  Na- 
tional Bank,  to  expire  in  1836.  It  was  modeled 
upon  the  one  which  the  Republicans  had  opposed 
in  1 791  and  181 1.  Hamilton's  argument  in  favor 
of  such  a  bank  was  republished  by  Republican 
newspapers  with  a  warmth  of  approval  which 
showed  how  far  the  party  had  forgotten  its  strict 
constructionist  principles.  Congress  adjourned 
April  30th,  1816. 

12.  Presidential  Candidates  were  nominated 
by  the  usual  Congressional  caucuses.  Among  the 
Republicans  the  Virginia  influence,  which  had 
named  the  President  for  24  of  the  28  years  since 
1789,  was  again  successful  in  nominating  James 
Monroe,  his  principal  competitor  being  Wm.  H. 
Crawford,  of  Geofig^ia.  Daniel  D.  Tompkins,  of 
New  York,  was  nominated  for  the  Vice-Presidency. 
For  President  the  Federalists  supported  Rufus 
King,  of  New  York,  but  united  on  no  one  for  the 
Vice-Presidency.  The  Presidential  Election 
in  November  resulted  in  complete  Republican  suc- 
cess. Only  three  States,  Massachusetts,  Connecti- 
cut, and  Delaware,  chose  Federalist  electors. 

13.  Congress  met  December  2d,  1816.  Decem- 
XlVth  Congress,     ber    nth,  Indiana  became 

2d  Session.  a  State  of  the  Union.     This 

Session  was  almost  without  party  contest.  In  Feb- 
ruary, 18 1 7,  the  electoral  votes  were  counted  and 
were  found  to  be,  for  President,  183  for  Monroe, 
and  34  for  King,  and,  for  Vice-President,  183  for 


88  American  Politics.  [1816 

Tompkins,  and  34  for  various  other  persons. 
Monroe  and  Tompkins  were  therefore  declared 
elected.  March  3d,  181 7,  Congress  adjourned, 
and  March  4th  Monroe  and  Tompkins  were  sworn 
into  office. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

EIGHTH    ADMINISTRATION,    1817-182I. 

James  Monroe,  President.         Daniel  D.  Tompkins,  Vice-President. 
XVth  and  XVlth  Congresses. 

1.  The  President  appointed  a  Republican  Cabi- 
net. He  had  been  urged  to  ignore  parties  in  his 
appointments,  but  in  his  opinion  the  time  had  not 
yet  come  to  do  so.  May  31st  he  began  an  extended 
tour  through  the  Northern  States,  being  the  first 
President  to  imitate  Washington's  example  in  this 
respect.  The  welcome  everywhere  given  him  prob- 
ably helped  to  blot  out  the  last  remnant  of  Federal- 
ist opposition. 

2.  Congress  met  December  ist,  181 7.  The  pro- 
XVth  Congress,     fessed   Federalists  were  very 

1st  Session.  few.  In  the  House  Speaker 
Clay  was  re-elected  almost  unanimously.  Decem- 
ber loth  Mississippi  became  a  State  of  the  Union.* 
The  first  Act  of  this  Session  vibolished  the  inter- 
nal taxes  which  had  been  imposed  during  the  war. 
In  his  Message  the  President  had  taken  occasion  to 
recommend  a  Protective  Tariff.     The  question 

I  Appendices  C  and  F  will  show  how  carefully  a  new  Free  State  was  at 
once  balanced  by  the  creation  of  a  new  Slave  State,  in  order  to  control  th« 
Senate. 

89 


90  American  Politics.  [iSi/ 

was  compromised,  nearly  unanimously,  by  the  pass- 
age of  a  bill  continuing  for  seven  years  the  Tariff 
of  i8i6  on  cottons  and  woolens,  which  was  slightly 
protective.  A  proposition  was  made  to  use  the 
dividends  of  the  United  States  from  the  National 
Bank,  instead  of  appropriations.  It  was  postponed 
because  of  the  opposition  of  Strict  Constructionists. 
A  resolution,  supported  by  Clay,  to  recognize  the 
South  American  Republics,  formed  by  Spain's 
revolted  colonies,  was  rejected.  Congress  ad- 
journed April  2oth,  1818. 

3.  It  is  plain  that  the  all-powerful  Republican 
party  already  contained  the  Nucleus  of  a  New 
Party,  and  a  leader  for  it  in  the  person  of  Henry 
Clay.  He  had  headed,  or  advocated,  every  attempt 
to  increase  the  army  and  navy,  to  make  the  Tariff 
protective,  to  begin  a  system  of  general  public  im- 
provements at  national  expense,  or  to  make  the 
Federal  (jovernment  prominent  in  foreign  affairs, 
as  the  guardian  of  the  infant  Republics  of  South 
America.  All  of  these  measures  seemed  to  Strict 
Constructionists  either  unconstitutional  or  unwise. 
Some  of  Clay's  followers  were  only  temporarily 
attracted  by  his  personal  influence,  but  the  great 
majority  were  Loose  Constructionists,  Federalists 
in  reality,  though  they  would  have  disliked  the 
name. 

4.  The  summer  of  1818  was  marked  by  Indian 
difficulties  in  Florida,  which  deserve  mention  be- 
cause their  investigation  took  up  much  of  the  time 


I8i8.]  The  Seminole  War.  91 

of  the  next  Session  of  Congress.  In  quelling  dis- 
turbances among  the  Georgia  Indians  Andrew 
Jackson  had  been  systematically  thwarted  by  the 
Spanish  authorities  of  Florida.  He  therefore  en- 
tered their  territory,  seized  their  principal  towns, 
and  captured  and  put  to  death,  "  as  outlaws  and 
pirates,"  Arbuthnot  and  Ambrister,  two  British  sub- 
jects, who  had  led  the  Seminole  Indians. 

5.  Congress  met  November  i6th,  1818.  Decem- 
XVth  Congress,     ber  3d  Illinois  became  a  State 

2d    Session.  of  the  Union.     In  the  House 

the  Committee  on  Military  Affairs  offered  two  re- 
ports on  The  Seminole  War.  The  majority 
report  proposed  a  censure  upon  Jackson  for  his 
execution  of  Arbuthnot  and  Ambrister,  declaring 
it  unwise,  unnecessary,  and  unjustifiable  by  the 
laws  of  war  or  of  nations.  The  minority  report 
approved  his  action.  The  majority  report  was  re- 
jected by  the  House  and  postponed  by  the  Senate. 
The  contest  was  then  transferred  to  the  newspa- 
pers, where  it  raged  violently. 

6.  February  22d,  1819,  a  treaty  was  concluded 
by  which  Spain  sold  the  Floridas  to  the  United 
States  for  $5,000,000,  and  the  United  States  aban- 
doned all  claim  to  the  territory  West  of  the  Sabine 
River  (afterwards  known  as  Texas),  which  had 
formed  part  of  Louisiana  as  purchased  from  France.* 
A  territory  worth  ten  Floridas  was   thus  surren- 

1  Within  thirty  years  the  determination  of  the  South  to  regain  this  aban- 
doned territory  forced  the  United  States  into  war  with  Mexico. 


92  American  Politics,  [1819 

dered  to  Spain,  and  became  a  part  of  the  Republic 
of  Mexico  two  years  later. 

7.  At  this  Session  the  people  of  the  Terri- 
tory of  Missouri  (a  part  of  the  Louisiana  Pur- 
chase) applied  for  permission  to  form  a  State  gov- 
ernment. In  the  House  an  amendment  was  offered 
to  the  bill,  forbidding  Slavery  or  involuntary  ser- 
vitude in  Missouri,  except  as  a  punishment  for 
crime.'  Party  lines  were  at  once  dropped.  The 
members  from  the  Free  States  voted  for,  and  the 
members  from  the  Slave  State's  against,  the  amend- 
ment. It  passed  the  Hous*».,  was  rejected  by  the 
Senate,  and  the  bill  was  lesl  Congress  adjourned 
March  3d,  18 19. 

8.  The  application  of  Missouri  thus  suddenly 
brought  up  the  Slavery  Question,^  which  was  to 
be  argued  and  compromised  for  forty  years,  and 
then  settled  by  civil  war.  Negro  Slavery  had  ex- 
isted in  all  the  colonies,  and  was  even  decided  legal 
by  the  highest  English  court  of  law.  In  the  North 
it  had  since  been  abolished  in  the  States  lying  north 
of  the  dividing  line  run  by  the  old  surveyors, 
Mason  and  Dixon,  between  Maryland  and  Penn- 
sylvania. In  the  South  it  worked  mildly,  and  was 
considered  a  necessary  and  hereditary  evil.  But 
the  invention  of  Whitney's  cotton  gin  in  1793  had 
niade  slave  labor  profitable,  and  had  made  Slavery 

1  This  was  copied,  in  part,  from  the  ordinance  of  1787. 

2  Its  appearance  was  so  sudden,  that   Ex-President  Jefferson  said  it 
startled  him  "  like  a  fire-bell  in  the  night." 


i8i9-]  Slavery. —  The  Tariff.  93 

an  institution  to  be  defended  and  extended  by  the 
Southern  States.  While  the  Union  was  confined 
to  the  fringe  of  States  along  the  Atlantic  coast  the 
Slavery  question  was  not  troublesome.  And  it  was 
at  first  possible  to  unite  the  representatives  of  both 
sections  in  the  admission  of  new  States,  by  using 
the  Ohio  as  a  dividing  line  between  the  States  in 
which  Slavery  should  be  forbidden,  and  those  in 
which  it  should  be  allowed.  But  when  the  tides  of 
emigration  had  crossed  the  Mississippi  and  had 
begun  to  fill  the  Louisiana  Purchase,  conflict  was 
inevitable,  for  the  dividing  line  was  lost.  In  the 
House  the  members  from  the  Free  States  were  a 
majority.  In  the  Senate  the  sections  had  been 
carefully  equalized,  but  a  few  Northern  Senators 
generally  voted  with  the  South,  thus  giving  it  a 
majority  in  that  body. 

9.  Congress  met  December  6th,  181 9.     The  state 
XVIth  Congress,     of  parties  was    unchanged. 
1st  Session.  In  the  House  Speaker  Clay 

was  re-elected  almost  unanimously.  December 
14th  Alabama  became  a  State  of  the  Union.  At 
this  Session  a  Protective  Tariff  was  passed  by 
the  House,  but  rejected  by  the  Senate.  The  result, 
though  it  disappointed  the  Eastern  manufacturers, 
who  had  confidently  expected  relief  from  Congress, 
shows  a  still  further  advance  of  loose  construc- 
tionist principles  in  the  dominant  party.  Strict 
Constructionists  believed  that  the  Constitution  gave 
Congress  power  to  lay  duties  only  with  the  design 


94  American  Politics.  [1820 

to  provide  for  the  expenses  of  the  Government  and 
for  the  payment  of  the  debt,  and  that  the  arrange- 
ment of  duties  for  the  benefit  of  any  branch  of 
manufactures  was  usurpation  of  a  power  not  granted 
or  impHed.'  Loose  Constructionists  believed  that 
the  power  to  regulate  commerce  and  provide  for 
the  common  defence  implied  the  power  to  lay  a 
Protective  Tariff,  and  that  any  consequent  benefit 
to  manufacturers  would  be  more  than  offset  by  the 
creation  of  a  domestic  market  for  agricultural 
products. 

10.  At  this  Session  Missouri  again  applied  for 
permission  to  form  a  State  government,  and  Maine 
(formerly  a  part  of  Massachusetts)  made  a  first  ap- 
plication for  the  same  permission.  The  House 
passed  the  Maine  bill  without  opposition,  but  by  a 
sectional  vote,  again  prohibited  Slavery  in  Missouri. 
In  the  Senate,  also  by  a  sectional  vote,  the  Maine 
bill  and  a  Missouri  bill  permitting  Slavery  were 
united  and  then  passed.  This  was  for  the  purpose 
of  compelling  both  bills  to  stand  or  fall  together, 
and  of  throwing  upon  the  House  the  responsibility 
for  their  acceptance  or  rejection.  The  House 
rejected  the  combined  bills,  as  passed  by  the 
Senate,  and  adhered  to  its  first  action. 

11.  The  difficulty  was  settled  by  the  famous 
Missouri   Compromise    of    1820,   which  was 

I  But  there  have  been  very  few  advocates  of  absohitely  Free  Trade 
(removal  of  a// duties  on  imports),  and  the  entire  payment  of  Government 
expenses  by  internal  taxation.  The  party  distinction  given  in  the  text 
teems  to  have  generally  governed  our  poiiticM  history. 


l820.]        TJic  Missouri  Coinprouiise.  95 

adopted  by  the  active  exertions  of  Clay  and  the 
moderate  members  from  both  sections.  By  this 
measure  each  section  yielded  a  part  of  its  demands, 
the  Senate  by  permitting  Maine  and  Missouri  to 
be  voted  upon  separately,  and  the  House  by  per- 
mitting Slavery  in  Missouri.  Both  branches  then 
united  in  forever  prohibiting  Slavery  in  all  other 
territory  north  of  the  line  of  36°  30'.'  Maine  was 
then  admitted  as  a  State  of  the  Union,  and  the  bill 
authorizing  a  State  government  to  be  formed  in 
Missouri  was  passed.  Congress  adjourned  May 
15th,  1820. 

12.  No  Presidential  candidates  were  nominated 
this  year,  there  being  no  opposition  to  the  re-elec- 
tion of  President  Monroe  and  Vice-President  Tomp- 
kins. All  the  electors  chosen  in  the  Presidential 
Election  in  November  were  Republican,  but  one 
of  them  refused  to  vote  for  Monroe,  so  that  his 
election  was  not  unanimous. 

13.  Congress  met  November  13th,  1820.  Speaker 
XVIth  Congress,     Clay  resigned  his  position  on 

2d  Session.  account   of   private    affairs. 

After  three  days'  balloting  for  a  successor  JohnW. 
Taylor,  of  New  York,  a  Loose  Constructionist,  in 
favor  of  a  Protective  Tariff  and  an  internal  im- 
provement system,   and   opposed  to  extension  of 

I  Thirty-five  Southern  members,  who  believed  that  Congress  had  no 
power  to  prohibit  Slavery  in  the  Territories,  voted  against  the  Missouri 
Compromise.  John  Randolph  called  it  "  a  dirty  bargain,"  and  gave  those 
who  voted  for  it  the  name  of  "  doughfaces."  This  title  was  always  after- 
ward applied  to  Northern  men  "of  Southern  principles." 


90  American  Politics.  [1821 

Slavery,  was  chosen.  His  election  shows  the  pro- 
gress of  the  division  in  the  Republican  party.  It 
gave  great  offense  to  the  Southern  members,  and 
they  for  a  time  debated  a  dissolution  of  the  Union, 
a  remedy  which  has  been  proposed  at  various 
times  by  almost  every  section  for  every  variety  of 
grievance. 

14.  Missouri,  having  formed  a  State  govern- 
ment, applied  for  admission.  The  application 
was  rejected  in  the  House  by  a  sectional  vote,  on 
account  of  a  clause  in  the  constitution,  prohibiting 
the  entrance  of  free  negroes  into  the  State.'  It 
was  not  until  March  2d,  182 1,  that  this  difficulty 
was  settled,  again  by  Clay's  exertions.  Missouri 
was  then  admitted,  on  condition  that  the  State 
should  never  pass  an  act  to  interfere  with  the 
constitutional  privileges  of  the  citizens  of  other 
States.  But  the  Legislature  only  accepted  the 
condition  in  June,  1821. 

15.  In  February,  1821,  the  Electoral  Votes 
were  counted.  It  was  known  that  Missouri,  which 
claimed  to  be  already  a  State,  and  protested  against 
the  right  of  Congress  to  reject  her  application,  had 
chosen  electors.  It  was  also  known  that  Southern 
members  would  make  a  vigorous  effort  to  have  these 
votes  counted.  After  a  stormy  session  on  the  day 
of  counting,  lasting  in  the  House  for  several  hours 
after  the  time  appointed  for  joint  meeting  with  the 
Senate,  another   compromise   was   effected.     The 

I  In  some  of  the  Northern  States  free  negroes  were  citizens. 


1 82 1.]  The  Vote  of  Missouri.  97 

President  of  the  Senate  was  directed,  in  case  any 
objection  should  be  made  to  the  vote  of  Missouri, 
to  announce  that  ''  if  the  votes  of  Missouri  were 
counted,  the  number  of  votes  for  A.  B.  for  Presi- 
dent would  be  so  many,  and  if  the  votes  of  Mis- 
souri were  not  counted  the  number  of  votes  for  A. 
B.  for  President  would  be  so  many,  and  that  in 
either  case  A.  B.  was  elected."  There  being  no 
opposition  to  the  Republican  candidates,  the  result 
of  course  was  foreknown. 

16.  Considerable  delay  and  confusion  was  caused 
in  joint  meeting  by  an  unsuccessful  attempt  of 
some  of  the  Southern  members  to  renew  the  con- 
test, but  the  vote  was  finally  announced  as  previ- 
ously agreed.  There  were  235  votes,  including 
that  of  Missouri,  and  232  without  it.  Not  counting 
the  vote  of  Missouri  there  were,  for  President,  228 
votes  for  James  Monroe,  and  i  for  John  Quincy 
Adams,  and,  for  Vice-President,  215  votes  for 
Daniel  D.  Tompkins,  and  14  for  various  other  per- 
sons.' Monroe  and  Tompkins  were  therefore 
declared  elected.  March  3d,  182 1,  Congress  ad- 
journed, and  on  Monday,  March  5th,  Monroe  and 
Tompkins  were  sworn  into  office. 

1  Three  electors  had  died  before  having  an  opportunity  to  vote. 


CHAPTER  X. 

NINTH    ADMINISTRATION,    182I-1825. 

James  Monroe,  President.  Daniel  D .  Tompkins,  Vice-President. 

XVTIth  and  XVIIIth  Congresses. 

1.  Monroe's  election  had  l)een  so  nearly  unani- 
mous, and  party  divisions  had  nominally  so  far  dis- 
appeared, that  this  Administration  is  commonly 
called  The  Era  of  Good  Feeling.  In  reality 
there  was  as  much  bad  feeling  between  the  Strict 
Constructionists  and  the  Loose  Constructionists  of 
the  Republican  party  as  could  have  existed  between 
two  opposing  parties.  The  want  of  regularly  or- 
ganized parties  had  only  the  effect  of  making  the 
next  Presidential  election  a  personal  instead  of  a 
party  contest,  the  worst  form  which  a  political 
struggle  can  take. 

2.  Congress  met  December  3d,  1821.  In  the 
XVIIth  Congress,     House    P.    P.   Barbour,  of 

1st  Session.  Virginia,  a  Strict  Construc- 

tionist, was  chosen  Speaker.  The  Loose  Construc- 
tionists, however,  succeeded  in  passing  a  bill  for 
the  preservation  of  the  Cumberland  Road,  but 
it  was  vetoed  by  the  President,  on  the  ground  that 
98 


1 822.]     The  Tariff. — Monroe  Doctrine.  99 

"  Congress  do  not  possess  the  power,  under  the 
Constitution,  to  pass  such  a  law."  But  his  Mes- 
sage gave  his  opinion  that  an  Amendment  to  the 
Constitution  should  be  adopted,  giving  the  Federal 
Government  power  to  make  improvements  for  great 
national  purposes.  The  Strict  Constructionists  suc- 
ceeded in  defeating  further  propositions  to  make 
surveys  for  a  national  canal  system,  and  to  make 
the  Tariff  more  protective.  Congress  adjourned 
May  8th,  1822. 

3.  Congress  met  December  2d,  1822.     There  was 
XVIIth  Congress,     little  party  contest  at  this' 

2d  Session.  Session.     The  Strict  Con- 

structionists defeated  bills  for  an  increase  of  the 
Tariff,  and  a  renewed  attempt  to  create  a  national 
canal  system.  All  other  bills  necessary  for  the 
support  of  the  Government  were  passed,  generally 
by  large  majorities.  Congress  adjourned  March 
3d,  1823. 

4.  Congress  met   December    ist,    1823.     Henry 
XVIIIth  Congress,     Clay,  of  Kentucky,  who 

ist  Session.  was  now  the  leader  of  the 

Loose  Constructionists  in  Congress,  was  chosen 
Speaker  in  the  House.  In  his  Message  President 
Monroe  mentioned  the  war  then  waged  by  Spain 
against  her  revolted  colonies,  and  declared  that  the 
United  States  would  neither  interfere  in  any  Euro- 
pean war,  nor  tolerate  any  attempt  by  any  European 
power  to  acquire  a  controlling  influence  in  this 
hemisphere.     This  has  since  been  called  the  Mon- 


100  American  Politics.  [1824 

roe  Doctrine,  and  has  passed  into  a  settled  rule 
of  foreign  policy  for  all  American  political  parties. 

5.  The  President's  Message  showed"^  that  his 
views  had  slightly  changed,  for  he  incidentally  re- 
commended Protection  and  Internal  Improvements. 
The  Loose  Constructionists  were  in  a  majority  in 
this  Congress,  and  after  a  debate  of  more  than  two 
months  the  Tariff  of  1824  was  adopted  by  very 
small  majorities.  It  was  an  advance  on  all  pre- 
ceding Tariffs  in  its  consistent  design  to  exclude 
foreign  competing  goods  from  American  markets. 
It  was  passed  by  the  Northern  members,  except 
those  from  the  North-East,  against  the  almost 
unanimous  vote  of  the  Southern  members,  who 
considered  it  sectional,  unconstitutional,  and  unjust. 
The  Loose  Constructionists  were  also  successful  in 
passing  a  bill  for  surveys  for  a  National  Canal 
System.     Congress  adjourned  May  27th,  1824. 

6.  An  effort  was  made  at  this  Session  by  the 
friends  of  William  H.  Crawford,  of  Georgia,  to 
revive  the  Caucus  System  of  nomination  for 
the  Presidency.  Very  few  members  of  Congress 
obeyed  their  call  for  a  caucus,  and  Crawford's 
nomination  by  this  body  really  injured  his  chances 
of  success.  As  there  were  no  recognized  parties, 
the  Presidential  election  degenerated  into  a  per- 
sonal contest,  in  which  the  leading  candidates  were 
Henry  Clay,  of  Kentucky,  Speaker  of  the  House, 
John  Quincy  Adams,  of  Massachusetts,  Secretary 
of  State,  William  H.  Crawford,  of  Georgia,  Secre- 


1824.]  The  Presidential  Election.  lOl 

tary  of  the  Treasury,  and  Andrew  Jackson,  a  pri^ 
vate  citizen  of  Tennessee/  Clay  and  Adams  were 
Loose  Constructionists.  Crawford  and  Jackson 
were  Strict  Constructionists,  but  Jackson  was  ob- 
jectionable to  the  Crawford  faction,  on  account  of 
his  leaning  toward  a  Protective  Tariff.  John  C. 
Calhoun,  of  South  Carolina,  Secretary  of  War,  was 
generally  supported  for  the  Vice-Presidency  by  the 
friends  of  all  the  other  candidates.  The  Pre- 
sidential Election  in  November  gave  no  can- 
didate a  majoricy  of  all  the  electors  chosen,  and 
therefore  left  the  President  to  be  chosen  by  the 
House  of  Representatives. 

7.  Congress  met  December  6th,  1824.     The  yet 
XVIIIth   Congress,     undecided       Presidential 
2d   Session.  election  was    ahnost  the 

only  party  contest  of  the  Session.  In  February, 
1825,  the  electoral  votes  were  counted  and  were 
found  to  be,  for  President,  99  for  Andrew  Jackson, 
84  for  John  Quincy  Adams,  41  for  William  H. 
Crawford,  and  37  for  Henry  Clay,  and,  for  Vice- 
President,  182  for  John  C.  Calhoun,  and  78  for 
various  other  persons.  Calhoun  was  therefore 
declared  elected  Vice-President,  and  the  House 
proceeded  to  choose  a  President  from  the  three 
highest  candidates,  each  State  having  one  vote. 
As  Clay  stood  fourth  on  the  list  he  was  not  eligible, 
and  it  was  natural  that  he  and  his  friends  should 
unite  on  John  Quincy  Adams,  the  other  Loose  Con- 

I  Hence  it  is  known  as  "  the  scrub  race  for  the  Presidency." 


I02  American  Politics,  [1824 

structionist  candidate.  Through  this  coalition  13 
States  voted  for  Adams,  7  for  Jackson,  and  4  for 
Crawford.  Adams  was  therefore  declared  elected 
President.  The  feeling  excited  by  this  result  still 
further  increased  the  division  between  the  Strict 
Constructionists  and  the  Loose  Constructionists 
who  were  soon  to  be  openly  opposing  parties. 
March  3d,  1825,  Congress  adjourned,  and  March 
4th  Adams  and  Calhoun  were  sworn  into  office. 


^ 


CHAPTER  XI. 

TENTH    ADMINISTRATION,     1825-1829. 

John  Quincy  Adams,  President.      John  C.  Calhoun,  Vice-President. 
XlXth  and  XXth  Congrresses. 

1.  From  the  very  beginning  of  this  Administra- 
tion both  factions  of  the  Strict  Constructionists 
united  in  an  opposition  to  the  President,  which 
became  stronger  through  his  whole  term  of  office, 
until  it  overcame  him.  His  ill-advised  Nomina- 
tion of  Clay  to  a  post  in  his  Cabinet  gave  color 
to  the  charge  of  a  corrupt  bargain  between  him 
and  Clay,  by  which,  in  return  for  the  Clay  vote 
in  the  House,  CIslj^  was  to  receive  as  he  did  the 
position  of  Secretary  of  State,  then  usually  con- 
sidered a  stepping  stone  to  the  Presidency.  Clay 
angrily  denied  any  such  bargain,  and  the  renewal 
of  charges  and  denials,  each  with  its  appropriate 
arguments,  gave  abundant  material  for  debate. 

2.  The  Clay  and  Adams  factions  soon  united 
and  took  the  distinctive  party  name  of  National 
Republicans.  Some  years  afterward  this  name 
was  changed  to  that  of  Whigs.  They  maintained 
the  loose  constructionist  principles  of  the  Fed- 
eralists, and,  in  addition,  desired  a  Protective  Tariff 

103 


I04  American  Politics.  [1825 

and  a  system  of  public  improvements  at  national 
expense.  This  policy  was  suggested  by  the  Pre- 
sident's Inaugural,  and  repeated  in  his  first  Message. 

3.  In  October,  1825,  the  Tennessee  Legislature 
nominated  Jackson  for  the  Presidency  in  1828,  and 
Jackson  accepted  the  nomination.  Crawford's  con- 
tinued ill-health  compelled  his  adherents  to  look 
elsewhere  for  a  candidate,  and  they  gradually  united 
upon  Jackson.  At  first  the  resulting  coalition  was 
known  as  "  Jackson  Men,"  but,  as  they  began  to 
take  the  character  of  a  national  party,  they  assumed 
the  name  of  Democrats,  by  which  they  have  since 
been  known.  They  maintained  the  strict  construc- 
tionist principles  of  the  Republican  party,  though 
the  Crawford  faction  in  the  South  went  further,  and 
held  the  extreme  ground  of  the  Kentucky  Resolu- 
tions of  1799.'  This  had  already  borne  fruit  in  the 
case  of  the  State  of  Georgia  and  the  Cherokee 
Indians,  in  which  a  collision  had  almost  taken  place 
between  the  State  and  the  Federal  Government. 

4.  Congress  met  December  5th,  1825.  In  the 
XlXth  Congress,       House  John  W.  Taylor,  of 

ISt  Session.  New  York,   a  Loose    Con- 

structionist, was  chosen  Speaker.  His  small  ma- 
jority (99-94)  represents  the  Administration  ma- 
jority in  the  House.  In  the  Senate  its  majority  was 
larger,  but  in  both  branches  of  Congress  the  "  Jack- 
son men  "  and  the  Crawford  faction  united  in  a  de- 
termined Opposition.     One-third  of  the  Session 

1  See  page  50. 


1826.]  The  Opposition.  105 

was  taken  up  by  the  discussion  of  proposed  changes 
in  the  manner  of  electing  the  President.  It  drifted 
off  into  an  angry  debate  on  the  "  Clay  and  Adams 
bargain,"  and  came  to  no  result.  The  Opposition 
also  made  a  fruitless  effort  to  limit  the  President's 
appointing  power. 

5.  Most  of  the  measures  proposed  by  the  Pres- 
ident at  this  Session,  or  known  to  be  favored  by 
him,  were  passed  with  difficulty  or  failed  altogether. 
In  the  Senate  Vice-President  Calhoun,  who  was  dis- 
posed to  act  with  the  "  Jackson  men,"  had  given 
them  the  majority  on  the  committees.  In  the  latter 
part  of  this  Session,  therefore,  the  Senate  took  the 
then  unusual  step  of  depriving  its  presiding  officer 
of  the  power  of  appointing  committees.  Much  time 
was  spent  in  debating  the  President's  appointment 
of  delegates  to  the  Congress  of  American  Republics 
at  Panama.  It  was  at  length  approved,  and  for- 
gotten almost  immediately.  Appropriations  for 
internal  improvements  were  increased.  Congress 
adjourned  May  22d,  1826.  The  summer  of  1826 
was  spent  by  the  opposing  factions  in  endeavors  to 
recruit  or  cement  their  organizations. 

6.  Congress  met  December  4th,  1826.  The  ob- 
XlXth  Congress,     structive  spirit  of  the  Op- 

2d  Session.  position  was  so  determined 

that  few  measures  of  national  importance  were 
passed  at  this  Session.  TheAdministration's  sup- 
porters in  the  House  succeeded  in  passing  a  bill  for 
an  increase  of  the  Tariff,  but  the  Vice-President's 


io6  American  Politics.  [1827 

casting  vote  defeated  it  in  the  Senate.  The  Op- 
position introduced  bills,  which  were  defeated,  to 
divide  a  part  of  the  revenue  among  the  States,  and 
to  repay  fines  levied  under  the  Sedition  Act  of  1798. 
Congress  adjourned  March  3d,  1827. 

7.  This  was  the  only  Session  of  Congress  in  which 
the  Adams  Administration  had  even  a  nominal  ma- 
jority. The  election  for  members  of  the  XXth 
Congress  had  resulted  in  the  success  of  the 
Adams  candidates,  or  National  Republicans,  in 
New  England,  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  Ohio,  In- 
diana, and  Louisiana.  In  New  York,  Pennsylvania, 
and  Illinois,  and  in  every  Southern  State,  with  the 
exception  of  Louisiana,  the  Jackson  candidates,  or 
Democrats,  were  successful,  and  thus  obtained  con- 
trol of  the  House. 

8.  From  this  time  the  idea  of  a  connected  system 
of  roads  and  canals,  to  be  built  and  maintained  by 
the  Federal  Government,  was  abandoned,  and  its 
advocates  confined  themselves  to  voting  for  iso- 
lated public  improvements  in  various  parts  of  the 
country.  But  the  demand  for  a  higher  Tariff  than 
that  of  1824  was  brought  still  more  strongly  into 
politics  by  a  National  Convention  of  Protec- 
tionists, at  Harrisburgh,  Pa.,  July  30th,  1827. 
Many  of  the  Democratic  members  elect  to  the  XXth 
Congress  from  the  North  supported  the  National 
Republicans  in  their  demand  for  Protection.  The 
Strict  Constructionists  from  the  South  were  in 
favor  of  a  Tariff  for  revenue  only.     The  division 


1 828.]       The  Opposition.— Protection.  107 

upon  this  point  was  therefore  becoming  one  of  sec- 
tions, rather  than  of  parties. 

9.  Congress  met  December  3d,  1827.  In  the 
XXth  Congress,     House  Andrew  Stevenson,  of 

1st  Session.  Virginia,    a    Democrat,    was 

chosen  Speaker.  This  gave  the  Opposition  the 
organization  of  the  House  and  the  appointment  of 
its  committees.  In  the  Senate  the  hitherto  doubtful 
members  at  once  joined  the  Democrats,  and  the 
Opposition  became  a  majority  there  also.  The 
Debates  at  this  Session  were  ahnost  entirely 
political.  A  proposition  to  order  a  painting  of 
Jackson's  successful  battle  of  New  Orleans,  and 
a  counter  proposition  to  investigate  his  execution  of 
six  insubordinate  militiamen,  were  solemnly  de- 
bated for  a  month.  The  increased  expenditure  of 
the  Government  was  also  the  subject  of  long  debate 
without  result. 

10.  The  most  important  event  of  this  Session  was 
the  success  of  the  Protectionists  in  passing  the 
Tariff  of  1828,  after  a  debate  of  six  weeks.  It 
was  so  protective  as  to  be  satisfactory  to  manufac- 
turers and  very  objectionable  to  the  Southern 
States,  where  it  was  considered  a  legalized  robbery. 
From  this  time  the  Nullification  doctrine  of  the 
Kentucky  Resolutions  of  1799  gained  strength 
rapidly  in  the  South.  Congress  adjourned  May 
26th,  1828. 

11.  The  Democratic  candidates  for  the  Presi- 
dential election  in  1828  were  Andrew  Jackson,  o£ 


Io8  American  Politics.  [1829 

Tennessee,  and  John  C.  Calhoun,  of  South  Carolina. 
The  National  Republican  candidates  were  John 
Quincy  Adams,  of  Massachusetts,  and  Richard 
Rush,  of  Pennsylvania.'  The  candidates  on  both 
sides  were  nominated  by  common  consent,  or  by 
State  Legislatures.  The  system  of  Congressional 
caucuses  had  been  abandoned,  and  that  of  National 
Conventions  had  not  yet  been  adopted.  The  Pre- 
sidential Election  in  November  resulted  in  the 
complete  success  of  the  Democratic  electors. 

12.  Congress  met  December  ist,  1828.  In  his 
XXth  Congress,     Message  the  President  for  the 

2d  Session.  first  time  earnestly  advocated 

Protection.  This  Session  was  uneventful,  as  is 
usually  the  case  after  an  exciting  Presidential  elec- 
tion. The  Democratic  majority  were  not  disposed 
to  obstruct  the  Administration  while  engaged  in 
putting  its  affairs  in  order  for  its  successor.  After 
long  debate  upon  their  constitutionality,  unusually 
large  appropriations  were  voted  for  Internal  Im- 
provements, and  approved  by  the  President.  In 
February,  1829,  the  electoral  votes  were  counted, 
and  were  found  to  be,  for  President,  178  for  Jack- 
son, and  Zt,  for  Adams,  and,  for  Vice-President, 
171  for  Calhoun,  7  for  William  Smith,  of  South 
Carolina,  and  d>^  for  Rush.  Jackson  and  Cal- 
houn were  therefore  declared  elected.  March  3d, 
1829,  Congress  adjourned,  and  March  4th  Jackson 
and  Calhoun  were  sworn  into  office. 

1  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  candidates  of  both  parties  were  "  sectional." 


CHAPTER  XII. 

ELEVENTH    ADMINISTRATION,    1829-1833. 

Ajadrew  Jackson,  President.  John  C.  Calhoun,  Vice-President. 

XXIst  and  XXIId  Congresses. 

Popular  vote  for  President  in  1828  .• '  Jackson  i^Dem.), 
647,231,  Adams  {Nat.  Pep.)  509,097. 

I.    Jackson's    First    Administration    was 

stormy  in  both  foreign  and  domestic  relations. 
Serious  disagreements  with  England  as  to  cpna^^.. 
merce  with  her  colonies  and  the  boundary  betwe^r^*^ 
Maine  and  British  America,  and  with  France  as  to 
the  payment  of  the  long  standing  indemnity  for 
French  spoliations,  repeatedly  threatened  war,  but 
were  all  peaceably  settled.  At  home  the  Adminis- 
tration was  engaged  in  constant  struggle  with  its 
opponents,  the  National  Republicans,  the  Anti- 
Masons,  and  the  United  States  Bank,  and  was 
abandoned  by  a  part  of  its  own  party,  the  Loose 
Constructionists,  who  advocated  Protection  and 
Internal  Improvements,  and  the  Nullificationists. 
The  President's  final  success  came  from  the  impos- 
sibility of  a  hearty  union  of  his  opponents,  though 
many  doubtful  voters  were  attracted  to  him  by  his 

I  Hitherto  electors  had  been  generally  chosen  by  the  State  Legislatures. 
After  1824  they  were  chosen  generally  by  popular  vote.  South  Carolina 
continued  to  choose  electors  by  the  Slate  Legislature  until  1868. 

log 


no  American  Politics.  [1829 

military  achievements,  by  the  undoubted  sincerity 
of  his  intentions,  and  by  natural  sympathy  for  one 
man  contending  against  odds. 

2.  The  National  Republicans  were  in  a  min- 
ority in  1829,  but  were  continually  reinforced  by 
loose  constructionist  Democrats.  They  never  be- 
came a  majority  party,  but,  by  combining  with  the 
other  elements  of  opposition,  were  frequently  able 
to  thwart  the  President's  plans,  and  even  to  censure 
his  actions.  Their  leader  was  Henry  Clay,  now 
Senator  from  Kentucky.  His  popularity  with  his 
party  was  already  great,  though  not  so  unbounded 
as  afterward,  when  the  Whig  party  almost  became 
Clay's  personal  party. 

3.  In  1826  William  Morgan,  of  Batavia,  New 
York,  who  had  advertised  a  book  exposing  the 
secrets  of  Free  Masonry,  was  kidnapped  and  never 
seen  again.  The  crime  was  charged  upon  the 
society,  and  investigation,  as  it  was  alleged,  was 
impeded  by  leading  Free  Masons.  A  party  soon 
grew  up  in  Western  New  York,  pledged  to  oppose 
the  election  of  any  Free  Mason  to  public  office. 
The  Anti-Masonic  Party  acquired  influence  in 
other  States,  and  began  to  claim  rank  as  a  national 
political  party.  On  most  points  its  principles  were 
those  of  the  National  Republicans.  But  Clay,  as 
well  as  Jackson,  was  a  Free  Mason,  and  conse- 
quently to  be  opposed  by  this  party.* 

I  In  1832  it  even  nominated  a  Presidential  ticket  of  its  own,  but,  having 
no  national  principle  of  controlling  importance,  it  soon  after  declined. 


1 829.]  State  of  Parties.  Ill 

4.  Financial  mismanagement,  and  the  distress 
growing  out  of  the  War  of  181 2,  had  compelled 
Republicans  in  j8i6  to  abandon  their  strict  con- 
structionist principles  and  charter  a  National 
Bank  for  twenty  years.  It  was  empowered  to  hold 
$55,000,000  in  property,  to  issue  $35,000,000  in 
notes  receivable  by  the  United  States  as  cash  for 
all  debts,  had  the  use  without  interest  of  the  United 
States  revenues  deposited  with  it,  and  was  not 
amenable  to  State  Laws.  It  had  friends  and  de- 
pendents in  all  parts  of  the  Union,  some  seated  in 
Congress,  and  many  prominent  in  both  parties.  Its 
power  seemed  to  Jackson  anti-democratic,  and  his 
first  Message  opened  upon  it  a  war  which  soon 
drove  it  into  politics,  and  ultimately  destroyed  it. 

5.  Among  Jackson's  warmest  supporters  were 
many  who  were  sufficiently  loose  constructionist 
in  opinion  to  support  Protection  and  Internal 
Improvements.  Jackson  himself  had  formerly 
been  no  opponent  of  either,  and  on  that  account 
had  been  objectionable  to  the  Crawford  faction. 
His  increasing  dislike  to  both  became  apparent 
soon  after  the  meeting  of  Congress  in  1829,  and 
alienated  many  of  his  supporters.  But  these  very 
generally  returned  to  his  support  when  he  had 
yielded  to  necessity,  and,  at  least  in  appearance, 
ceased  his  opposition  to  their  favorite  measures. 

6.  The  extreme  Democracy  of  the  South  had 
only  accepted  Jackson  because  of  the  loss  of  their 
former  leader,  Crawford.     As  the  progress  of  Jack- 


112  American  Politics.  [1829 

son's  Administration  showed  that  he  could  not 
be  relied  upon  as  a  representative  of  their  deter- 
mined hostility  to  Protection,  they  learned  to  regard 
Vice-President  Calhoun  as  their  leader.  They 
had  already  acted  upon  the  doctrines  of  the  Ken- 
tucky and  Virginia  Resolutions  of  1798,'  and  the 
States  of  Georgia  and  South  Carolina,  through  their 
Legislatures,  had  protested  against  the  Tariff  of 
1828  as  unjust  and  unconstitutional.  Finding  that 
this  protest  had  no  effect  upon  other  States  or  upon 
Congress,  they  advanced,  during  Jackson's  first 
Administration,  to  the  ground  taken  by  the  Ken- 
tucky Resolutions  of  1799,^  affirming  the  right  of 
any  State  to  declare  null  and  void  any  Act  of  Con- 
gress which,  the  State  being  judge,  appeared  uncon- 
stitutional. This  was  the  doctrine  of  Nullifica- 
tion, which  grew  to  Secession  in  i860.' 

7.  After  the  first  great  party  overthrow  in  the 
United  States,  the  new  President,  Jefferson,  though 
he  found  many  Federalists  in  office,  had  been  able 
to  trust  to  time  and  the  assured  future  supremacy 
of  his  party  to  bring  about  a  change  of  occupants 
of  public  offices.  Successive  Presidents  of  the 
same  political  belief  saw  no  necessity  of  changes. 
But  Jackson,  following  a  President  who  had  almost 
created  a  hostile  party,  and  being  opposed  by  so 
many   open  and    concealed    enemies,    decided    to 

1  See  page  49.  2  See  page  50. 

3  Its  announcement  in  1832  drew  from  Madison  a  protest  against  the  use 
of  Jefferson's  name  "as  a  pedestal  for  this  colossal  heresy." 


1829.]  Removals  from  Office.  It3 

fill  every  vacancy  with  a  partisan  of  the  Administra- 
tion, and,  further,  to  create  vacancies,  whenever  it 
should  seem  of  party  advantage,  by  exercising  the 
almost  unused  privilege  of  Removal  from  Ofifice. 
This  made  necessary,  during  the  summer  of  1829, 
the  application  of  the  comparatively  novel  theory 
of  *' rotation  in  office,"  '  by  which  nearly  500  post- 
masters were  removed  during  Jackson's  first  year 
of  office.  The  practice  thus  begun  in  self-defense 
has  since  been  adopted  by  all  parties  in  all  elec- 
tions, great  and   small,  national  and  local. 

8.  Congress  met   December    7th,    1829,    with    a 
XXIst  Congress,     Democratic  majority  in  both 

ist  Session.  branches.      In    the    House 

Andrew  Stevenson  was  again  chosen  Speaker.  But 
his  overwhelming  majority  (152-39)  did  not  long 
cohere.  The  President's  Message  avoided  the 
Tariff  question,  and  advised  the  election  of  Presi- 
dent and  Vice-President  directly  by  the  people,  an 
inquiry  into  the  constitutionality  and  advisability 
of  renewing  the  Bank's  charter  in  1836,  and  the 
distribution  of  surplus  revenue  among  the  States  in 
preference  to  using  it  for  Internal  Improvements. 
Such  recommendations  were  enough  to  alienate 
many  supporters  of  the  Administration  at  once, 
and  the  committees  to  which  they  were  referred 
reported  in  flat  opposition  to  the  President's  views. 

9.  In  the  Senate  a  resolution  was  introduced  by 

I  Stated  by  Marcy,  of  New  York,  in  the  Senate,  as  the  axiom  that  *"  the 
spoils  of  the  enemy  belong  to  the  victor." 


114  A  juerica n  Politics.  [  i  S  30 

Foote,  of  Connecticut,  directing  an  inquiry  into  the 
expediency  of  limiting  public  land  sales  in  future. 
The  debate  upon  this  apparently  harmless  reso- 
lution lasted  intermittently  for  five  months,  and 
drifted  off  to  a  great  variety  of  subjects,  such  as 
Slavery,  Western  and  Southern  grievances.  New 
England  Federalism,  the  relative  powers  of  the 
State  and  Federal  Governments,  and  Nullification. 
During  its  progress,  in  February,  1830,  the  doc- 
trine of  Nullification  was  formally  announced  by 
Hayne,  of  South  Carolina,  in  reply  to  Webster  of 
Massachusetts,  but  limited,  as  yet,  to  peaceable 
resistance.  The  eloquence,  learning,  and  party 
zeal  of  the  ''  Great  Debate  in  the  Senate  " 
as  it  has  always  been  called,  make  it  almost  a  politi- 
cal history  of  the  United  States  up  to  its  date. 

10.  The  case  of  the  Cherokee  Indians  in 
Georgia  was  introduced  at  this  Session.  Under 
treaties  with  the  United  States  these  Indians  held 
lands  desired  by  the  State.  Acts  were  passed  by 
the  Legislature  to  open  up  the  Indian  country  to 
white  settlers,  against  the  protest  of  the  Indians. 
To  settle  the  trouble  an  Act  was  passed  at  this 
Session  to  pay  the  Indians  for  their  lands  and  to 
remove  them  beyond  the  Mississippi.  It  was  op- 
posed with  much  feeling  by  the  National  Republi- 
cans, and  failed  to  accomplish  its  purpose,  for  the 
Indians  refused  to  sell  their  lands. 

11.  A  bill  was  passed  at  this  Session  authorizing 
a   Government   subscription    to   the   stock  of   the 


1830.]        Pocket  Veto.— Nullification.  1 15 

Maysville  Turnpike  Road  in  Kentucky.  The 
President,  believing  that  Congress  had  no  power  to 
pass  such  a  law,  vetoed  it.  Two  days  before  the 
adjournment  of  Congress  two  bills  of  a  similar 
nature  to  that  of  the  Maysville  Turnpike  bill  were 
passed.  The  President  could  legally  retain  them 
for  ten  days  before  signing  them.  He  did  so,  ana 
in  the  interval  came  the  day  previously  fixed  for 
the  adjournment  of  Congress,  while  the  bills  re- 
mained, as  it  were,  in  the  President's  pocket,  with- 
out force  of  law.  This  new  method  of  veto,  an- 
grily called  a  Pocket  Veto,  was  employed  by  the 
President  on  several  occasions  afterward.  Con- 
gress adjourned  May  31st,  1830. 

12.  April  13th,  1830,  the  leading  Democrats  at 
Washington  gave  a  dinner  to  celebrate  Jefferson's 
Birthday.  At  the  close  of  the  regular  toasts, 
which  had  been  so  drawn  as  to  suggest  Nullifica- 
tion, the  President  rebuked  the  whole  proceeding 
by  giving  a  volunteer  toast,  "  Our  Federal  Union  : 
it  must  be  preserved."  The  Vice-President  re- 
torted with  another  to  "  Liberty,  dearer  than  the 
Union."  These  counter  defiances  called  the  atten- 
tion of  the  whole  country  to  the  progress  of  Nulli- 
fication among  Democratic  leaders,  and  indirectly 
gave  the  Nullificationists  warning  to  regard  the 
President  as  an  obstacle  to  their  designs.  Cal- 
houn, for  whom  Jackson  had  previously  had  a  high 
regard,  and  from  whose  friends  he  had  in  great 
part  formed  his  Cabinet,  recognized  the  President's 


Ii6  American  Politics.  [183 1 

growing  suspicion  and  dislike  of  him,  and  spent 
the  summer  of  1830  in  obtaining  materials,  by  let- 
ter and  otherwise,  for  a  pamphlet  criticism  of  Jack- 
son's course  in  the  St^minole  War  of  1818. 

13.  Congress  met  December  6th,  1830.  The 
XXIst  Congress,     President's    Message    again 

2d  Session.  attacked  the  Bank,  and  ar- 

gued against  the  power  of  Congress  to  vote  public 
money  for  any  internal  improvement  that  was  local 
in  its  nature,  and  not  beneficial  to  the  country  at 
large.  The  temper  of  Congress  was  not  that  of 
the  President.  A  Harbor  Improvement  Bill 
was  at  once  introduced  and  passed  by  majorities  so 
large  that  the  President  yielded  and  signed  it.  He 
also  signed  other  bills  of  a  similar  nature,  making 
large  appropriations  for  the  improvement  of  roads 
and  rivers,  and  for  a  light-house  system.  Much  of 
this  Session  was  taken  up  by  the  impeachment  and 
trial  of  Judge  Peck,  of  Missouri,  which  had  no 
political  bearing.  Congress  adjourned  March  3d, 
1831. 

14.  The  long  promised  attack  upon  the  Presi- 
dent by  Vice-President  Calhoun  appeared  in  March, 
1831,  and  was  followed  by  the  Breaking  up  of 
the  Cabinet.  Its  Calhoun  element  had  for  a  long 
time  lost  the  confidence  of  the  President,  who  ap- 
parently trusted  more  to  the  advice  of  Van  Buren, 
Secretary  of  State,  and  some  private  friends,  com- 
monly called  the  Kitchen  Cabinet.  Van  Buren,  to 
whose    machinations    Calhoun    attributed    the  bad 


1832.]       TJie  National  Bank  Strjtggle.  117 

feeling-  between  himself  and  the  President,  at 
once  resigned,  and  the  other  members  of  the  Cab- 
inet, by  request,  followed  his  example/ 

15.  Congress  met  December  5th,  1S31.  The 
XXIId  Congress,  Senate,  though  doubtful  at 
ISt  Session.  first,  proved  to  have  an  Op- 

position majority.  l\\  the  House  Speaker  Steven- 
son, the  Administration  candidate,  was  re-elected 
by  one  vote  (9S-97).  The  President's  Message 
attacked  the  Bank  for  the  third  time,  and,  although 
its  charter  still  had  five  years  to  run,  it  felt  com- 
pelled to  begin  the  conflict.  It  therefore  made 
application  for  a  renewal  of  its  charter.  The 
President's  supporters  in  the  House  asked  for  an 
investigation  of  the  affairs  of  the  Bank.  The  com- 
mittee appointed  for  this  purpose  made  two  reports, 
the  majority  approving,  and  the  minority  con- 
demning, the  Bank's  management.  After  long  de- 
bate the  bill  to  renew  the  charter  passed  both 
Houses,  and  was  vetoed  by  the  President,  July 
loth,  1832.  An  effort  to  pass  it  over  the  veto 
lacked  a  two-thirds  majority,  and  failed.  The  veto 
made  many  new  friends  and  many  new  enemies  for 
the  President,  but  only  increased  the  bitterness  of 
the  struggle  between  him  and  the  Bank. 

16  In  January,  1832,  the  Nomination  of 
Martin  Van  Buren,  of  New  York,  late  Secretary 
of  State,  to  be  minister  to  England,  came  up  in  the 

I  It  was  commonly  believed,  however,  that  the  breaking  up  of  the  Cab- 
inet was  precipitated  by  trouble  between  the  families  of  its  members. 


Ii8  American  Politics.  [1832 

Senate  for  confirmation.  His  nomination  was  re- 
jected, although  he  was  already  in  England.  The 
vote  was  so  arranged  as  to  make  a  tie  (23-23),  thus 
giving  Vice-President  Calhoun  the  '' vengeance  "  of 
a  casting  vote  on  the  rejection.  The  spiteful  feel- 
ing shown  by  some  of  the  Opposition  probably 
made  the  rejection  rather  a  benefit  to  Van  Buren. 

17.  At  this  Session  a  bill  was  passed  and  signed 
by  the  President,  appropriating  $1,200,000  for  In- 
ternal Improvements.  Another  bill  of  a  simi- 
lar  nature  was  also  passed,  but  was  killed  by  a 
*'  pocket  veto."  The  Tariff  of  1832  was  passed 
and  signed  by  the  President.  It  was  intended  and 
expected  to  pacify  the  continued  discontent  in  the 
South,  particularly  in  South  Carolina.  This  it 
failed  to  accomplish,  for,  though  it  reduced  the 
duties  of  1828,  it  still  recognized  the  principle  of 
Protection.     Congress  adjourned  July  14th,  1832. 

18.  Presidential  nominations  were  madethisyear 
for  the  first  time  by  all  the  parties  in  National 
Conventions.  AH  three  Conventions  were  held 
at  Baltimore.  That  of  the  Anti-Masons  was  held 
first,  in  September,  1831,  in  the  hope  of  compelling 
the  National  Republicans  to  abandon  Clay,  and 
adopt  the  Anti-Masonic  candidates.  Judge  Mc- 
Lean, of  Ohio,  having  declined  a  nomination,  Wil- 
liam Wirt,  of  Virginia,  and  Amos  Ellmaker,  of 
Pennsylvania,  were  nominated.  In  December, 
1831,  the  National  Republican  Convention  nom- 
inated Henry  Clay,  of   Kentucky,  and  John   Ser- 


1832.]  Nullification,  1 1 9 

geant,  of  Pennsylvania.  The  platform  pronounced 
in  favor  of  Internal  Improvements,  Protection,  and 
the  Bank,  and  against  the  Administration  and  its 
course  in  the  Cherokee  case.  Jackson  had  already 
(in  February,  1830)  been  renominated  for  the  Presi- 
dency by  his  friends  in  the  New  York  Legislature. 
In  March,  1832,  the  Democratic  National  Conven- 
tion confirmed  this  renomination,  and  nominated 
Martin  Van  Buren,  of  New  York,  for  the  Vice- 
Presidency.  For  his  success  in  gaining  the  nomin- 
ation Van  Buren  was  indebted  to  Calhoun's  "ven- 
geance." 

19.  In  the  Presidential  Election  in  Novem- 
ber, South  Carolina  held  sullenly  off  from  both  par- 
ties and  chose  electors  pledged  to  candidates  of  her 
own,  John  Floyd,  of  Virginia,  and  Henry  Lee,  of 
Massachusetts.  Anti-Masonic  electors  were  chosen 
by  Vermont  alone.  All  the  other  States,  with  the 
exception  of  six,  chose  Democratic  electors.  But 
Jackson's  popular  majority  was  smaller  than  at  his 
first  election,  and  the  Opposition,  if  it  had  been 
possible  to  unite  it,  might  have  defeated  him. 

20.  Southern  politicians  had  perhaps  only  aimed 
at  obtaining  the  repeal  of  the  Tariff  of  1828  by 
threats  of  Nullification  and  Secession.  But  when 
the  modified  Tariff  of  1832  showed  that  Protection 
in  some  form  was  to  be  the  settled  policy  of  the 
Government,  they  had  lost  control  of  their  consti- 
tuents, and  were  compelled  to  follow  the  current. 
In  the  case  of  the  Cherokee   Indians,  the  State  of 


I20  American  Politics,  [1832 

Georgia  had  already  nullified  an  Act  of  Congress, 
and  refused  obedience  to  the  United  States  Su- 
preme Court.  Emboldened  by  this  example,  and  by 
the  belief  that  the  passage  of  Federal  troops  across 
Virginia  and  North  Carolina  would  be  forcibly  re- 
sisted by  those  States,  a  State  Convention,  held  at 
Columbia,  S.  C,  November  19th,  1832,  formally  de- 
clared the  Tariffs  of  1828  and  1832  to  be  *' null, 
void,  and  no  law,  nor  binding  upon  South  Carolina, 
her  officers  and  citizens,"  made  any  appeal  to  the 
United  States  Supreme  Court  a  punishable  offense, 
prescribed  an  oath  of  obedience  to  this  ordinance 
to  be  taken  by  all  jurors  and  State  officers,  and  con- 
cluded with  a  warning  to  the  other  States  that  any 
attempt  at  force  would  be  followed  by  the  secession 
of  South  Carolina  from  the  Union.  The  Ordi- 
nance of  Nullification  was  to  take  effect  Feb- 
ruary ist,  1833.  i^^  November  the  State  Legisla- 
ture met  and  proceeded  to  make  the  State  ready 
for  war,  and  to  pass  various  Acts  re-assuming  those 
powers  which  had  been  expressly  abandoned  under 
the  Constitution. 

21.  December  16,  1832,  the  President  issued  his 
Proclamation  to  the  people  of  South  Carolina. 
It  reviewed  the  history  of  Nullification,  showed  its 
treason,  danger,  and  folly,  and  declared  his  un- 
flinching purpose  of  carrying  out  the  laws  in  the 
face  of  any  resistance  whatever.  He  followed  up 
his  words  by  occupying  Charleston  Harbor  with  a 
naval  force,  and  providing  guards  for  the  protec- 


^^35']        Compromise  Tariff  6/1833.  1 2 1 

tion  of  officials  engaged  in  collecting  the  revenue 
under  the  Tariff  of  1832. 

22.  Congress  met  December  3d,  1832.  Soon 
XXI Id  Congress,     afterward  Calhoun  resigned 

2d  Session.  the  Vice-Presidency,  and  be- 

came Senator  from  South  Carolina.  Early  in  1833 
he  took  an  opportunity  to  declare  that  his  State  had 
never  intended  forcible  resistance  to  the  Federal 
Government,  and  a  meeting  of  leading  Nullifiers  in 
Charleston  decided  to  yield  to  the  collection  of 
the  revenue  until  after  the  adjournment  of  Con- 
gress. At  this  Session  a  Bill  for  Enforcing  the 
Tariff'  was  passed  and  signed  by  the  President. 
It  provoked  much  angry  declamation  in  South 
Carolina,  but  no  secession.  After  long  discussion 
of  various  proposed  modifications  of  the  Tariff, 
Clay's  Compromise  Tariff  of  1833  was  passed, 
and  signed  by  the  President.  It  provided  for  the 
gradual  reduction  of  the  Tariff  until  1842,  after 
which  year  the  duties  on  all  goods  were  to  be  20 
per  cent.  The  Nullificationists  claimed  this  as  a 
complete  triumph,  and  the  Anti-Tariff  excitement 
in  South  Carolina  ended  at  once. 

23.  Not  even  Nullification  could  compel  the  Pres- 
ident to  desist  for  a  time  from  his  warfare  upon 
the  United  States  Bank.  In  his  Message  at 
this  Session  he  astonished  Congress  and  the  coun- 

I  Commonly  called,  in  South  Carolina,  the  "  Bloody  Bill.'"  Its  oppo- 
nents in  the  Senate  refused  to  vote,  with  the  exception  of  John  Tyler,  of 
Virginia. 


122  American  Politics.  [1833 

try  by  expressing  doubts  of  the  solvency  of  the 
Bank.  He  recommended  a  cessation  of  the  depos- 
its of  United  States  revenue  in  it,  and  a  sale  of  the 
stock  belonging  to  the  United  States.  Both  these 
propositions  were  easily  defeated  by  the  Congress- 
ional friends  of  tlie  Bank.  Clay's  bill  for  the  loan 
to  the  States  of  the  proceeds  of  the  sales  of  public 
lands  was  passed,  but  was  disposed  of  by  a  "  pocket 
veto." 

24.  In  February,  1833,  the  electoral  votes  were 
counted,  and  were  found  to  be,  for  President,  219 
for  Jackson,  49  for  Clay,  11  for  Floyd,  and  7  for 
Wirt,  and,  for  Vice-President,  189  for  Van  Buren, 
30  for  William  Wilkins,  of  Pennsylvania,  49  for  Ser- 
geant, 1 1  for  Lee,  and  7  for  Ellmaker.  Jackson 
and  Van  Buren  were  therefore  declared  elected. 
March  2d,  1833,  Congress  adjourned,  and  March 
4th  Jackson  and  Van  Buren  were  sworn  into  office. 


CHAPTER   XIII. 

TWELFTH    ADMINISTRATION,     1833-1837. 

Andrew  Jackson,  President.        Martin  Van  Buren,  Vice-President. 
XXTIId  and  XXIVth  Congresses. 

Popular  vote  for  President  in  1832  .•  Jackson  i^Dem.) 
687,502,  Clay  [Nat.  Rep.)  530,189. 

1.  The  Act  of  1816,  which  created  the  Bank 
of  the  United  States,  required  that  the  public  mon- 
eys should  be  deposited  in  it,  subject  to  removal 
at  any  time  on  the  order  of  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury,  with  the  proviso  that  the  Secretary  should 
afterwards  give  Congress  his  reasons  for  such  re- 
moval. At  the  last  Session  the  President  had 
recommended  Congress  to  order  the  removal  of 
the  deposits  from  the  Bank,  and  Congress,  by  large 
majorities,  had  refused  to  do  so.  The  President, 
taking  his  re-election  as  a  popular  approval  of  his 
war  upon  the  Bank,  now  determined  to  assume  the 
responsibility  of  removal  himself. 

2.  With  this  view  he  removed  (in  the  Spring  of 
1833)  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  who  would 
not  consent  to  remove  the  deposits,  and  appointed 
William  J.  Duane,  of  Pennsylvania,  in  his  place. 
He  proved  to  be  no  more  pliant  than  his  predeces- 
sor,    After  many  attempts   to    persuade  him,  the 

123 


124  American  Politics.  [1833 

President  announced  to  the  Cabinet  liis  final  de- 
cision that  the  deposits  must  be  removed.  The 
Reasons  given  were  that  the  law  gave  the  Secre- 
tary, not  Congress,  control  of  the  deposits,  that  it 
was  improper  to  leave  them  longer  in  a  bank  whose 
charter  would  so  soon  expire,  that  the  Bank's  funds 
had  been  largely  used  for  political  purposes,  that 
its  inability  to  pay  all  its  depositors  had  been  shown 
by  its  efforts  to  procure  an  extension  of  time  from 
its  creditors  in  Europe,  and  that  its  four  Govern- 
ment directors  had  been  systematically  kept  from 
knowledge  of  its  management.  Secretary  Duane 
refused  either  to  remove  the  deposits  or  to  resign 
his  office,  and  pronounced  the  projiosed  removal 
unnecessary,  unwise,  vindictive,  arbitrary,  and  un- 
just. He  was  at  once  removed  from  office,  and 
Roger  B.  Taney,  of  Maryland,  appointed  in  his 
place. 

3.  The  necessary  Orders  for  Removal  were 
given  by  Secretary  Taney.  It  was  not  strictly  a 
removal,  for  all  previous  deposits  were  left  in  the 
Bank,  to  be  drawn  upon  until  exhausted.  It  was 
rather  a  cessation.  The  deposits  were  afterwards 
made  in  various  State  banks,'  and  the  Bank  of  the 
United  States  was  compelled  to  call  in  its  loans. 
The  commercial  distress  which  followed  in  conse- 
quence probably  strengthened  the  President  in  the 
end  by  giving  a  convincing  proof  of  the  Bank's 
power  as  an  antagonist  to  the  Government. 

I  Commonly  called  the  "  pet  banks." 


1^33-]  Ccnsii re  of  tJic  President.  1 2  5 

4.  Congress  met  December  2d,  1833.  In  the 
XXIIId   Congress,     Senate    the    still    existing 

1st  Session.  alliance    between    the    Na- 

tional Republicans  and  the  Calhoun  States  Rights 
Democracy  formed  a  majority  against  the  Admin- 
istration and  in  favor  of  the  Bank.  In  the  House 
the  strong  Administration  majority  was  shown  by 
the  re-election  of  Speaker  Stevenson,  Democrat, 
(142-61).  The  President's  Message  and  the  re- 
port of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  defended  the 
removal  of  the  deposits.  In  the  Senate  Clay  at 
once  introduced  condemnatory  resolutions,  which 
were  debated  for  three  months  and  then  passed. 
The  first  declared  the  reasons  given  for  the  removal 
to  be  unsatisfactory  and  insufficient.  The  second 
was  modified  during  the  debate  into  a  declaration 
that  the  President  in  removing  the  deposits  "had 
assumed  upon  himself  authority  and  power  not 
conferred  by  the  Constitution  and  laws,  but  in 
derogation  of  both."  To  the  Senate's  Resolu- 
tion of  Censure  the  President  replied  by  a  pro- 
test, on  the  ground  that  it  accused  him  of  perjury 
in  violating  his  oath  of  office,  and  was  thus  an  indi- 
rect and  illegal  method  of  impeachment,  a  con- 
demnation against  which  he  had  no  opportunity  to 
defend  himself.  The  Senate  refused  to  receive  the 
protest  or  place  it  upon  record. 

5.  In  the  House  the  President's  Message  was 
followed  by  the  appointment  of  a  committee  to  in- 
vestigate the   affairs  of  the   Bank.     The  majorit)! 


^ 


126  American  Politics.  [i^34 

report  complained  that  the  powers  of  the  com- 
mittee had  been  so  restricted  by  the  Bank  that  a 
full  investigation  had  been  impossible.  The  minor- 
ity report  approved  the  Bank  and  its  management. 
In  April  the  House  passed  resolutions  that  the 
Bank  ought  not  to  be  re-chartered,  and  that  the 
deposits  ought  not  to  be  restored.  In  June  the 
Senate  resolution,  condemning  the  reasons  for  the 
removal  of  the  deposits,  came  to  the  House  for 
concurrence,  and  was  tabled.  The  long  struggle 
was  thus  practically  ended  by  the  Success  of  the 
President.  The  Bank  of  the  United  States  was 
soon  afterward  chartered  by  the  State  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, but  no  longer  had  the  funds  of  the  United 
States  at  its  disposal.' 

6.  Rejections  of  the  President's  Nomina- 
tions by  the  Senate  were  frequent  at  this  Session. 
The  four  Government  Directors  of  the  Bank,  who 
had  joined  the  President  in  attacking  it,  were  re- 
nominated by  him,  and  rejected.  The  rejected 
names  were  again  sent  to  the  Senate,  and  again 
rejtfcted.  No  more  nominations  for  Government 
Directors  were  made  at  this  Session.  Secretary 
Taney's  nomination  was  not  sent  to  the  Senate 
until  June,  1834,  and  was  then  rejected.  Speaker 
Stevenson's  nomination  to  be  Minister  to  England 

1  These  were  at  first  deposited  in  various  State  banks.  In  the  Session 
of  1834-35  the  '  Sub-Treasury  plan  "  was  suggested  by  the  Opposition, 
and  voted  down  by  the  Democrats.  Later  it  was  adopted  by  the  Demo- 
crats, and  made  law  against  the  Whig  efforts  to  revive  a  National  Bank, 
It  has  since  remained  in  force. 


1835 •]  TJie  Sub-Treasury  PhiJt.  1 27 

was  also  rejected.  An  unsuccessful  attempt  was 
made  to  limit  the  President's  appointing  power,  and 
his  appointments  to  office  for  political  reasons  were 
severely  condemned  by  the  Senate.  A  committee 
of  the  House  investigated  the  Post  Office  De- 
partment at  this  Session,  and  reported  that  it 
had  been  managed  without  frugality,  system,  intel- 
ligence, or  adequate  public  utility.  As  the  investi- 
gating committee  was  composed  of  supporters  of 
the  Administration,  their  report  was  decisive.  A 
bill  for  reforming  the  Post  Office  Department  was 
introduced  and  passed.  Congress  adjourned  June 
30th,  1834. 

7.  Congress  met  December  ist,  1834.     There  was 
XXIIId  Congress,     little   party  contest  at  this 

2d  Session.  Session.       Further     appro- 

priations were  made  for  Internal  Improve- 
ments. Regulations  wxre  made  to  govern  the 
deposit  of  public  moneys  in  State  banks.  This 
system  of  deposit,  called  the  State  Bank  Sys- 
tem, still  received  the  support  of  the  Democrats. 
The  Opposition  proposed  at  this  Session  the  sys- 
tem afterwards  known  as  the  "  Sub-Treasury  plan," 
by  which  agents  of  the  United  States  Treasury 
were  to  be  appointed,  wherever  necessar}^  to  re 
ceive  and  disburse  United  States  revenue,  and  to 
give  suitable  bonds  for  the  performance  of  their 
duties.  The  Sub-Treasury  plan  was  voted  down. 
Congress  adjourned  March  3d,  1835. 

8.  The    President    wished    Vice-President    Van 


128  Ainerican  Politics.  [1835 

Buren  to  be  his  successor.  He  therefore  recom- 
mended that  the  Democratic  nomination  should  be 
made  in  National  Convention.  This  was  opposed 
by  the  friends  of  the  other  Democratic  candidate, 
Hugh  L.  White,  of  Tennessee,  who  had  been  nomi- 
nated by  the  Alabama  Legislature.  The  Conven- 
tion, which  met  at  Baltimore  in  May,  1835,  was 
attended  only  by  Van  Buren  delegates.  It  nomi- 
nated Martin  Van  Buren,  of  New  York,  and  Rich- 
ard M.  Johnson,  of  Kentucky,  and  adopted  no 
platform.  The  friends  of  White  supported  John 
Tyler,  of  Virginia,  for  Vice-President.  The  Na- 
tional Republicans  had  by  this  time  generally 
adopted  the  name  of  Whig's.'  They  generally 
supported  the  candidates  nominated  by  the  Whig 
and  Anti-Masonic  State  Conventions  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, William  H.  Harrison,  of  Ohio,  and  Francis 
Granger,  of  New  York.  John  McLean,  of  Ohio, 
and  Daniel  Webster,  of  Massachusetts,  were  also 
nominated  for  the  Presidency  b}'  the  Legislatures 
of  those  States.  All  these  nominations,  however, 
were  made  over  a  year  before  the  Presidential 
election  took  place. 

9.  Congress  met  December    7th,    1835.     In  the 
XXIVth    Congress,     Senate     the    Opposition, 
1st  Session.  composed  of  Whigs,  Nul- 

lification   Democrats,    and    Anti-Masons,    were    at 


I  The  name  seems  to  have  been  first  used  by  them  in  New  York  in  the 
Winter  of  1834-35.  The  name  "  Loco-  foco  "  was  at  the  same  time  given 
the  Democrats  by  the  Whigs. 


1836.]  The  Specie  Circular.  1 29 

first  a  majority,  but  the  Administration  reversed 
this  toward  the  end  of  the  Session.  In  the 
House  there  was  a  strong  Administration  majority, 
divided  into  Van  Buren  and  White  factions. 
James  K.  Polk,  of  Tennessee,  a  Democrat,  was 
chosen  Speaker.  The  President's  Message  an- 
nounced that  the  National  Debt  would  soon  be 
paid  off.  The  expected  Surplus  of  Revenue 
caused  long  debate  in  Congress.  In  June,  1836, 
an  Act  was  passed  providing  that,  after  January 
ist,  1837,  all  surplus  revenue  exceeding  $5,000,000 
should  be  divided  among  the  States  as  a  loati^ 
only  to  be  recalled  by  direction  of  Congress.' 
The  President  signed  the  bill.  June  15th,  1836, 
Arkansas  became  a  State,  after  some  opposition 
to  its  application  as  irregular.  Congress  adjourned 
July  4th,  1836. 

10.  After  the  fall  of  the  United  States  Bank  a 
number  of  State  banks  had  been  formed,  often  with- 
out adequate  capital,  to  supply  the  expected  need 
of  paper  money.  Their  notes  were  used  in  large 
quantities  for  the  purchase  of  public  lands  from  the 
United  States,  and  the  Treasury  was  thus  accumu- 
lating paper  currency  of  doubtful  worth.  Soon 
after  the  adjournment  of  Congress  the  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury,  by  direction  of  the  President,  issued 
the  so-called  Specie  Circular,  ordering  United 
States  agents  to  receive   in   future  only  gold  and 

I  This   distribution  amounted   to  $28,000,000,  none  of  which  was  cvei 
recalled.     It  ceased  in  1 8:117  (pp.  133,  135). 


130  American  Politics.  [1837 

silver  in  payment  for  lands.  This  caused  a  de- 
mand for  specie  which  could  only  be  met  by  the 
banks  in  which  the  revenue  was  deposited.  Other 
banks  fell  into  difficulties  which  culminated  in  the 
'*  Panic  of  1837." 

11.  The  Opposition  had  hoped  to  throw  the  Presi- 
dential Election  of  1836  into  the  House,  but  did 
not  succeed  in  doing  so,  for  a  majority  of  Van 
Buren  electors  were  chosen.  The  White  electors 
carried  the  States  of  Georgia  and  Tennessee.  The 
Whig  vote  had  largely  increased  since  the  last 
election. 

12.  Congress  met  December  5th,  1836.  January 
XXIVth  Congress,     26th,     1837,    Michigan 

2d  Session.  became   a   State  of    the 

Union.  In  the  Senate  this  Session  was  noteworthy 
for  the  final  success  of  the  President's  supporters. 
When  Clay's  Resolution  of  Censure,  against  which 
the  President  had  protested,  was  passed.  Senator 
Benton,  of  Missouri,  had  given  notice  that  he  would 
offer  a  resolution  each  year  to  expunge  it.  At  this 
Session  his  resolution  was  carried  and  put  into 
effect  at  once.' 

13.  Texas,  which  had  been  bargained  away  by 
Southern  votes  in  18 19,  was  now  a  prize  which  the 
South  longed  to  regain,  as  an  offset  to  the  rapidly 
multiplying   Northern    States.     It   had    become   a 

I  The  Resolution  of  1834  on  the  Senate  Journal  was  marked  around  by 
broad  black  lines,  with  the  inscription  "  Expunged  by  order  of  the  Senate 
this  16th  day  of  January,  1837." 


1 837-]  Slavery.  1 31 

part  of  the  Mexican  State  of  Coahuila,  but  was 
colonized  by  Americans,  and  then  declared  its 
independence.  The  President's  Message  advised 
Congress  not  to  interfere  in  the  struggle  between 
Mexico  and  Texas.  Nevertheless  a  resolution  re- 
cognizing the  independence  of  Texas  was  passed 
by  the  Senate,  but  failed  in  the  House. 

14.  In  1833  the  National  Anti-Slavery  So- 
ciety had  been  formed,  and  its  branches  multi- 
plied rapidly.  The  renewal  of  the  Slavery  question 
alarmed  the  Southern  States  and  many  of  the 
Northern  people  who  considered  any  attack  upon 
Slavery  dangerous  to  the  peace  of  the  Union. 
From  this  time  dates  the  existence  of  the  party  op- 
posed to  Slavery  in  the  United  States,  at  first  known 
as  Abolitionists.  A  requisition  was  made  by 
Georgia  upon  the  State  of  New  York  for  a  leading 
Abolitionist,  who  had  been  indicted  by  a  Georgia 
jury,  and  rewards  were  offered  by  citizens'  com- 
mittees in  the  South  for  the  bodies  of  others,  dead 
or  alive,  but  without  success.  Finally  mob  violence 
was  resorted  to  in  Boston  and  other  Northern 
cities,  to  destroy  Abolition  printing  presses,  break 
up  Abolition  meetings,  and  intimidate  Abolition 
orators.  At  least  one  person  (Lovejoy)  was  shot 
to  death. 

15.  These  lawless  outrages  only  increased  the 
zeal  of  the  Abolitionists  in  offering  Petitions  to 
Congress  to  abolish  Slavery  in  the  District  of 
Columbia,  and   in   sending   Abolitionist  books  and 


r32  American  Politics.  [1837 

papers  to  ever}'  part  of  the  country.  At  its  last 
Session  the  House  had  resolved  to  lay  all  future 
petitions  on  the  subject  of  Slavery  upon  the  table, 
without  further  action  or  notice.  At  this  Session 
the  President's  Message  made  indignant  reference 
to  the  practice  of  sending  Abolition  documents 
through  the  United  States  mails.  He  recom- 
mended a  bill  to  prohibit  the  practice  in  future.  A 
bill  was  consequently  introduced  in  the  Senate, 
prohibiting  any  postmaster  from  knowingly  putting 
any  Abolition  newspapers  or  documents  into  the 
mails.     The  bill  was  rejected. 

16.  In  February,  1837,  the  electoral  votes  were 
counted,  and  were  found  to  be,  for  President,  170 
for  Van  Buren,  73  for  Harrison,  26  for  White,  14 
for  Webster,  and  1 1  for  W.  P.  Mangum,  of  North 
Carolina,  and,  for  Vice-President,  147  for  Johnson, 
77  for  Granger,  47  for  Tyler,  and  23  for  William 
Smith,  of  Alabama.^  Van  Buren  was  therefore 
declared  elected  President.  No  candidate  having 
received  a  majority  of  all  tlie  votes  for  Vice-Presi- 
dent, the  Senate  chose  Richard  M.  Johnson. 
President  Jackson  issued  a  Farewell  Address  to 
the  American  People  before  leaving  office.  March 
3d,  1837,  Congress  adjourned,  and  March  4th  Van 
Buren  and  Johnson  TV'ere  sworn  into  office. 

I  The  three  votes  of  Michigan  for  Van  Buren  and  Johnson  are  included 
in  the  above  count,  though  the  State  was  not  fully  admitted  until  after  the 
election.     They  did  not  affect  the  result. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

THIRTEENTH  ADMINISTRATION,   1837-184I. 

Martin  Van  Buren,  President.    Richard  M.  Johnson,  Vice-President 
XXVth  and  XXVIth  Congresses. 

Popular  vote  for  President  in  1836  .•    De)n.  761,549, 
Combined  Opposition  736,656. 

1.  The  New  Administration  had  taken  Jack- 
son's Cabinet,  and  the  President  had  declared  his 
intention  "  to  follow  in  the  footsteps  of  his  illustri- 
ous predecessor."  He  therefore  caught  the  first  full 
effects  of  the  storm  produced  by  Jackson's  finan- 
cial policy,  from  which  even  Jackson's  popularity 
and  admitted  honesty  would  hardly  have  saved 
him.  The  excessive  amount  of  paper  money  in  cir- 
culation had  encouraged  reckless  speculation,  and 
nominally  raised  property  to  more  than  its  real 
value.  The  Specie  Circular  of  1836,  by  reviving 
the  demand  for  gold  and  silver,  had  destroyed  most 
of  the  banks  which  had  not  Government  deposits 
at  command.  The  demand  for  the  deposits,  for 
distribution  among  the  States,  completed  the  ruin 
of  many  of  the  "  pet  banks."  They  had  treated  the 
deposits  as  capital,  to  be  used  in  loans  to  business 
men,  and  now  had  to  return  them. 

2.  The  sudden   calling  in   of  these  loans  began 

133 


134  American  Politics.  [1837 

the  Panic  of  1837,  ^^  which  nothhig  comparable 
had  before  been  seen  in  America.  Early  in  May 
the  New  York  City  banks  refused  to  pay  gold  ol 
silver  for  their  notes,  and  the  New  York  Legisla- 
ture authorized  a  suspension  of  specie  payments 
throughout  the  State  for  one  year.  Banks  in  other 
cities  at  once  suspended.  May  15th,  the  President, 
by  Proclamation,  called  an  Extra  Session  of  Con- 
gress, to  meet  September  4th,  and  consider  and 
secure  the  financial  interests  of  the  Government. 
During  the  summer  of  1837  the  Panic  continued 
its  course,  wrecking  banks  and  corporations,  bank- 
rupting business  men,  and  violently  reducing  ficti- 
tious fortunes  to  their  real  value. 

3.  Congress  met  September  4th,  1837.  In  the 
XXVth  Congress,  Senate  there  was  an  Ad- 
Extra  Session.  ministration  majority.  In 
the  House  James  K.  Polk  of  Tennessee,  a  Demo- 
crat, was  re-elected  Speaker,  though  the  vote  (116- 
103)  shows  a  great  increase  of  Whig  members. 
Most  of  the  Calhoun  Democracy  were  now  support- 
ing the  Administration.  The  President's  Mes- 
sage recommended  that  the  Government  should 
not  interfere  directly  with  the  Panic,  believing  that 
it  would  finally  right  itself  more  safely  and  more 
easily.  He  also  recommended  the  adoption  by  the 
Government  of  the  *'  Sub-Treasury  plan."  '  This 
was  regarded  by  the  Whigs,  and  by  some  of  the 
Democrats,  as  an  endeavor  to  break  down  all  the 

I  See  page  127.     It  is  otherwise  called  the  "  Independent  Treasury  plan." 


1838.]  TJie  Sub-TreasHry  Bill.  1 35 

banks  in  the  country.  Its  democratic  opponents 
formed  a  temporary  party,  calling  themselves  Con- 
servatives, and  generally  voting  with  the  Whigs 
on  financial  matters.  A  bill  for  the  establishment 
of  an  Independent  Treasury  passed  the  Senate, 
but  was  tabled  in  the  House  by  a  combination  of 
Whigs  and  Conservatives.  Acts  were  passed  to 
cease  the  distribution  of  revenue  among  the  States, 
to  authorize  the  issue  of  $10,000,000  in  Treasury 
notes,  and  to  give  merchants  further  time  on  their 
revenue  bonds.     Congress  adjourned  October  i6th. 

4.  Congress  met  December  4th,  1837.     The  bill 
XXVth  Congress,     for  the  establishment  of  an 

1st  Session.  Independent  Treasury 

was  again  pressed  upon  Congress  by  the  Adminis- 
tration. It  passed  the  Senate  by  a  small  majority, 
and  was  again  defeated  in  the  House  by  a  Union 
of  Whigs  and  Conservatives.  The  only  measure 
for  the  relief  of  business  passed  at  this  Session  was 
a  joint  resolution  directing  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  to  receive  the  notes  of  specie  paying  banks 
in  payment  for  public  lands,  thus  annulling  the 
Specie  Circular.  The  first  open  attempt  to  unite 
Texas  to  the  United  States  was  made  at  this  Ses- 
sion, but  failed.  Congress  adjourned  July  9th, 
1838. 

5.  Congress   met  December  3d,    1838.      There 
XXVth  Congress,     was  little  party  contest  at 

2d  Session.  this     Session.      Discussion 

was  confined  mainly  to  the  Seminole  War  in  Florida, 


136  American  Politics.  [1839 

for  the  prosecution  of  which  large  amounts  had 
been  voted,  with  little  apparent  prospect  of  a  suc- 
cessful termination.  The  disinclination  of  Con- 
gress and  the  Administration  to  interfere  in  the 
financial  troubles  of  the  country,  while  it  agreed 
with  the  strict  constructionist  theory  of  the  powers 
of  the  Federal  Government,  operated  to  the  disad- 
vantage of  the  Democratic  party.  Many  of  its 
former  supporters  were  now  ready  to  try  Whig- 
government.  Congress  adjourned  March  3d,  1839. 
6.  Congress  met  December  2d,  1839.  Continu- 
XXVIth  Congress,  ous  Whig  Successes 
1st  Session.  had  given  them  a  fair  pros- 

pect of  a  majority  in  the  House.  Outside  of  New 
Jersey  119  Democrats  and  118  Whigs  had  been  re- 
turned to  the  House.  In  New  Jersey  members  of 
the  House  were  at  that  time  elected  on  a  general 
ticket  by  the  whole  State.  The  five  Whig  candi- 
dates had  certificates  of  election  under  the  broad 
seal  of  the  State,'  while  the  five  Democratic  candi- 
dates contested  their  election  on  the  ground  of  a 
miscount  in  one  county.  The  admission  of  either 
delegation  would  give  its  party  a  majority  in  the 
House.  For  three  days  a  disorderly  debate  con- 
tinued, there  being  no  presiding  officer  until  De- 
cember 5th,  when  John  Quincy  Adams  was  spas- 
modically chosen  chairman  pro  tempore.  Unsuc- 
cessful attempts  to  choose  a  Speaker  were  made 
for  two  weeks  longer,  many  motions  being  voted 

I  Hence  this  contest  is  often  called  the  Broad  Seal  War. 


1840.]         Sub-Treasury  Bill  Passed,  137 

upon  by  both  the  New  Jersey  delegations.  De- 
cember 17th,  R.  M.  T.  Hunter,  of  Virginia,  a  Sub- 
Treasury  Whig,  was  chosen  Speaker.  The  New 
Jersey  Question  was  not  settled  until  March, 
1S40,  when  the  Democratic  delegation  was  seated, 
many  Whigs  not  voting  because  of  lack  of  time  to 
examine  the  evidence  in  the  case. 

7.  The  party  contest  over  the  organization  of  the 
House  took  up  so  much  time  that  few  measures  of 
general  interest  were  passed  at  this  Session.  The 
most  notable  event  was  the  final  success  of  the 
Independent  Treasury  Scheme,  which  had 
twice  been  rejected  by  the  previous  Congress.  It 
was  passed  by  both  Houses,  and  signed  by  the 
President.*  The  "  divorce  of  bank  and  state," 
which  the  President  had  been  laboring  to  accom- 
plish, was  thus  successful.  The  strict  construc- 
tionist policy  of  the  President  was  also  successful 
in  the  entire  suspension  of  appropriations  for  Inter- 
nal  Improvements.'^  Congress  adjourned  July  21st, 
1840. 

8.  The  Whig  National  Convention  met  at 
Harrisburgh,  Pa.,  December  4th,  1839.  It  adopted 
no  platform.  For  the  purpose  of  uniting  the  Anti- 
Masonic  and  other  opposition  elements  it  reluct- 
antly abandoned  Clay,  and   nominated  William  H. 

1  It  will  be  seen  that  the  Whigs  at  the  next  Session  made  unsuccessful 
attempts  to  substitute  a  National  Bank  for  the  Sub-Treasury  plan- 

2  The  tools,  etc.,  belonging  to  the  Government  were  ordered  to  be  sold 
at  auction. 


138  American  Politics,  [1840 

Harrison,  of  Ohio,  and  John  Tyler,  of  Virginia.' 
The  Democratic  National  Convention  met  at 

Baltimore,  May  5th,  1840,  and  adopted  a  strict 
constructionist  platform,  denying  the  power  of 
Congress  to  carry  on  Internal  Improvements,  to 
protect  manufactures,  to  charter  a  National  Bank, 
or  to  interfere  with  Slavery  in  the  States.  It  unan- 
imously renominated  the  President,  but  left  nomi- 
nations,for  the  Vice-Presidency  to  be  made  by  the 
various  States.  The  Abolitionists,  or  Liberty 
Party,  made  Presidential  nominations  November 
13th,  1839.  The  candidates  were  James  G.  Birney, 
of  New  York,  and  Francis  Lemoyne,  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. 

9.  The  nomination  of  General  Harrison,  and  the 
Whig  attacks  upon  Van  Buren  and  his  financial 
policy,  created  an  enthusiasm  which  Van  Buren's 
nomination  did  not  meet.  Log-cabins  and  hard 
cider,  which  were  supposed  to  be  typical  of  Har- 
rison's frontier  life,  became  popular  with  the  Whigs, 
whose  hopes  were  renewed  by  their  success  in  the 
State  elections  of  the  summer  and  fall  of  1840.  At 
the  Presidential  Election  in  November  the 
united  opposition  abundantly  gratified  their  per- 
sonal hostility  to  Van  Buren.  The  Whig  electors 
were  overwhelmingly  successful.  Democratic  elec- 
tors were  chosen  by  only  two   Northern,  and  five 

I  Tyler  was  a  Strict  Constructionist,  a  Calhoun  Democrat,  who  had  re- 
fused to  follow  the  rest  of  his  faction  in  supporting  the  Administration, 
His  nomination  was  intended  to  gratify  the  Southern  portion  of  the  Oppo« 
sition  by  an  office  of  much  honor  and  little  importance. 


1 84 1.]  The  Electoral  Votes.  139 

Southern  States.  The  new  Abolition  party  did  not 
succeed  in  choosing  any  electors,  but  polled  a  pop- 
ular vote  of  7,609. 

10.  Congress  met  December  7th,  1840.     There 
XXVIth  Congress,     was  little    party    contest 
2d  Session.  at  this  Session.     In  Feb- 

ruary, 1 841,  the  electoral  votes  were  counted,  and 
were  found  to  be,  for  President,  234  for  Harrison, 
and  60  for  Van  Buren,  and  for  Vice-President,  234 
for  Tyler,  48  for  Richard  M.  Johnson,  of  Kentucky, 
II  for  L.  W.  Tazewell,  of  Virginia,  and  i  for  James 
K.  Polk,  of  Tennessee.  Harrison  and  Tyler  were 
therefore  declared  elected.  March  2>^,  1841,  Con- 
gress adjourned,  and  March  4th  Harrison  and 
Tyler  were  sworn  into  office. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

FOURTEENTH  ADMINISTRATION,    1841-1845. 

William  Henry  Harrison,  President,         John  Tyler,  Vice-Presidenv, 
XXVIItli  and  XXVIIIth  Cong-resses. 

Popular  vote  for  President  in   1840;    JV//i^-,  1,2  y^, - 
017,  Democratic,  1,128,702. 

1.  The    President's    Inaugural    Address 

condemned  any  excessive  use  of  the  veto  power, 
the  emplo3^ment  for  political  purposes  of  Executive 
control  over  public  officials,  and  all  Presidential 
experiments  upon  the  currency.  March  17th  the 
President,  by  proclamation,  called  an  Extra  Session 
of  Congress,  to  meet  May  3rst  and  consider  the 
financial  difficulties  of  the  Government.  Before 
any  further  developments  of  the  President's  policy 
could  take  place,  a  short  illness  resulted  in  his 
death,  April  4th.  According  to  law  John  Tyler 
became  President.  He  retained  President  Harri- 
son's Cabinet,  and  promised  to  carry  out  his  policy. 

2.  Congress  met  May  31st,  1841.'     In  the  House 
XXVIIth  Congress,  John  White,  of  Kentucky,  a 

Extra  Session.         Whig,  was  chosen  Speaker. 
The  Whigs  at  once  began  the  change  in   financial 

I  Senate,  28  Whig,  22  Dem.     House,  133  Whig,  108  Dem. 
140  • 


1 84 1.]  President   Tylers   Vetoes,  14 1 

policy  to  which  they  were  pledged.  x\  bill  to  abol- 
ish the  Sub-Treasury  of  the  previous  Administra- 
tion was  passed  by  both  Houses  and  signed  by  the 
President.  A  bill  to  incorporate  The  Fiscal 
Bank  of  the  United  States  was  passed  by  both 
Houses.  It  was  weeded  of  many  of  the  objection- 
able features  of  the  old  United  States  Bank,  but 
was  hardly  less  odious  to  the  Democrats.  It  was 
vetoed  by  the  President.  His  objection  was  that 
the  powers  given  to  the  Bank  were  such  as  he  and 
the  majority  of  the  people  believed  it  to  be  unwise 
and  unconstitutional  for  Congress  to  grant.  An 
effort  to  pass  the  bill  over  the  veto  did  not  receive 
a  two-thirds  majority, 

3.  The  Whig  leaders,  anxious  to  prevent  a  party 
disaster,  asked  from  the  President  an  outline  of  a 
bill  which  he  would  sign.  After  consultation  with 
the  Cabinet,  it  was  given,  and  passed  by  both 
Houses.  September  9th  the  President  vetoed  this 
bill  also,  and  an  attempt  to  pass  it  over  the  veto 
did  not  receive  a  two-thirds  majority.  The  action 
of  the  President,  in  vetoing  a  bill  drawn  according 
to  his  own  suggestions,  and  thus  apparently  pro- 
voking a  contest  with  the  party  which  had  elected 
him,  roused  the  unconcealed  indignation  of  the 
Whigs.  The  Cabinet,  with  one  exception,'  at  once 
resigned.  The  Whig  members  of  Congress  issued 
Addresses  to  the  People,  in  which  they  de- 
tailed the  reforms  designed  by  the  Whigs  and  im- 

I  Daniel  Webster,  of  Massachusetts,  Secretary  of  State. 


142  American  Politics.  [1842 

peded  by  the  President,  and  declared  that  "  all 
political  connection  between  them  and  John  Tyler 
was  at  an  end  from  that  day  forth."  At  this  Ses- 
sion an  Act  was  passed  to  distribute  the  proceeds 
of  the  sales  of  public  lands  among  the  States. 
Congress  adjourned  September  13th,  1841. 

4-  The  President  filled  the  vacancies  in  the 
Cabinet  by  appointing  Whigs  and  Conservatives 
His  position  was  one  of  much  difficulty.  His  strict 
constructionist  opinions,  which  had  prevented  him 
from  supporting  Van  Buren,  would  not  allow  him 
to  approve  a  National  Bank,  and  yet  he  had  ac- 
cepted the  Vice- Presidency  from  a  party  pledged 
to  establish  one.  The  over  hasty  declaration  of 
war  by  the  Whigs  put  a  stop  to  his  vacillations,  and 
compelled  him  to  rely  upon  support  from  the  Demo- 
crats. But  only  a  few  members  of  Congress,  com- 
monly known  as  "  the  corporal's  guard,"  recognized 
Tyler  as  a  leader.  The  Democrats  only  supported 
him  as  a  means  to  success,  and  were  encouraged  in 
so  doing  by  the  State  elections  of  1841,  which  were 
unfavorable  to  the  Whigs. 

5.  Congress  met  December  6th,  1841.  Although 
XXVIIth  Congress,  Congress  had  decided  to 
ISt  Session.  refuse    consideration    to 

petitions  for  the  abolition  of  Slavery,  they  continued 
to  be  sent.  John  Quiacy  Adams,  of  Massachusetts, 
made  himself  prominent  in  presenting  them  to  the 
House,  and  an  unsuccessful  attempt  was  made  to 
censure  him.     In  March,  1842,  in  the  House,  GiH- 


1842.]  Slavery. —  The   Tariff.  143 

dings,  of  Ohio,  presented  a  set  of  resolutions 
wliich  are  noteworthy  as  containing  the  basis  for 
the  subsequent  resistance  to  the  extension  of  Slav- 
ery to  the  Territories.  They  declared  that  Slavery, 
being  an  abridgment  of  the  natural  rights  of  man, 
can  exist  only  by  force  of  positive  municipal  law, 
and  is  necessarily  confined  to  the  territorial  juris- 
diction of  the  power  creating  it.  For  offering 
these  resolutions  the  House  censured  their  author. 
He  resigned  his  seat,  was  re-elected  at  a  special 
election  in  April,  and  again  took  his  seat  in  the 
House  early  in  May. 

6.  The  reduction  of  duties  by  the  Compromise 
Tariff  of  1833  had  gone  so  far  that  the  Government 
revenues  were  less  than  expenses.  The  Whig 
majority  passed  a  bill  continuing  for  the  present 
the  duties  under  the  Tariff  of  1833,  and  providing 
for  the  distribution  of  any  surplus  revenue  among 
the  States.  The  President  vetoed  it,  on  the 
ground  that  it  was  in  violation  of  the  Compromise 
of  1833  by  which  Protection  was  to  cease  after 
1842.  A  Tariff  designed  to  afford  a  revenue  was 
then  passed  by  both  Houses,  still  continuing  the 
objectionable  provision  for  the  distribution  of  the 
surplus.  This  was  also  vetoed.  In  the  House 
the  Veto  Message  was  referred  to  a  committee, 
whose  report  condemned  tlie  President's  undue 
assumption  of  power.  Against  this  the  President 
sent  a  formal  protest.  The  bill  was  then  passed 
by  both  Houses,  without  the  distributing  clause. 


144  American  Politics.  [^843 

signed  by  the  President,  and  became  the  Tariff 
of  1842.     The  Webster-Ashburton  Treaty 

of  August  9th,  1842,  ended  various  controversies, 
settled  the  North-eastern  boundary,  stipulated 
for  the  suppression  of  the  slave-trade,  and  in- 
augurated our  system  of  extradition.  Congress 
adjourned  August  31st,  1842. 

7.  Congress  met   December   5th,    1842.     There 
XXVIIth  Congress,     was  little  party  contest  at 

2d  Session.  this  Session.     On  its  last 

day  a  few  Anti-Slavery  Whigs  issued  an  address  to 
the  people,  warning  them  that  the  scheme  for  the 
annexation  of  Texas  had  never  been  abandoned, 
but  was  still  in  progress,  and  that  its  success  would 
result  in  and  justify  a  dissolution  of  the  Union. 
Congress  adjourned  March  3(1,  1843. 

8.  Congress  met   December  4th,   1843.     In   the 
XXVIIIth  Congress,     House  John  W.  Jones, 

1st  Session.  of  Virginia,  a  Democrat, 

was  chosen  Speaker.  The  majority  in  the  Senate 
was  Whig,  and  in  the  House  Democratic,'  and  the 
consequent  disagreement  prevented  united  action, 
and  encouraged  the  President  in  his  reliance  upon 
the  Democrats.  The  President's  Message  had 
recommended  that  any  appropriations  for  Internal 
Improvements  should  be  made  for  the  benefit  of 
the  Western  States.  Two  bills  were  passed,  the 
Eastern  Harbor  Bill,  and  the  Western  Harbor  Bill. 
The  President  signed  the  Western  Bill,  and  vetoed 

I  Senate,  28  Whig,  24  Dem.     House,  142  Dem.,  81  Whig. 


1 844-]      Texas. — Natiojial  Convc7itions.  145 

the  Eastern  Bill.  An  attempt  to  pass  it  over  the 
veto  did  not  receive  a  two-thirds  majority.  The 
Administration  concluded  a  treaty  with  Texas,  pro- 
viding for  annexation.  It  was  rejected  by  the 
Senate  by  a  strong  vote  (35-16),  all  the  Whigs  and 
7  Democrats  voting  against  It.  Congress  adjourned 
June  17th,  1844. 

9.  The  Annexation  of  Texas  was  now  rapidly 
becoming  a  party  question.  The  South  was  deter- 
mined to  accomplish  it.  It  was  felt  that  if  the  South 
must  stop  at  the  Sabine  (the  Eastern  boundary  of 
Texas),  while  the  North  might  spread  unchecked 
beyond  the  Rocky  Mountains,  '*  the  Southern  scale 
must  kick  the  beam,"  and  the  existence  of  Slavery 
would  be  endangered.  Before  the  National  Con- 
ventions met  the  views  of  the  leading  candidates 
upon  the  question  of  annexation  had  been  asked 
and  given.  Van  Buren  guardedly  announced  him- 
self as  opposed  to  ihe  present  annexation  (jf  Texas. 
Clay  expressed  himself  more  plainly  to  the  same 
effect. 

10.  The  National  Convention  of  the  Liberty 
Party  met  at  Buffalo,  August  30th,  1843.  It 
adopted  a  long  series  of  resolutions,  denouncing 
Slavery,  and  calling  upon  the  Free  States  for  penal 
laws  to  stop  the  return  of  fugitive  slaves.  It  nom- 
inated James  G.  Birney,  of  Michigan,  and  Thomas 
Morris,  ^i  Ohio.  The  Whig  National  Con- 
vention met  at  Baltimore,  May  ist,  1844,  and 
adopted  a  concise   loose  constructionist   platform, 

10 


14^  AmericiDi  Politics.  [1844 

advocating  a  national  currency,  a  protective  tariff, 
and  a  distribution  of  sur[)lus  revenue  among  the 
States.  It  nominated  Henry  Clay,  of  Kentucky, 
and  Theodore  Frclinghuysen,  of  New  York.  The 
Democratic  National  Convention  met  at  Bal- 
timore, May  27th,  1844,  and  again  adopted  its 
strict  constructionist  platform  of  1840,  with  an  ad- 
ditional article  demanding  the  re-occupatiori  of 
Oregon,  and  the  re-annexation  of  Texas.  A  large 
majority  of  the  delegates  came  pledged  to  vote  for 
Van  Buren,  whose  views  on  the  Texas  question 
did  not  satisfy  the  Southern  delegates.  They  suc- 
ceeded in  destroying  his  chances  of  a  nomination 
by  the  adoption  of  the  rule  of  two  former  Demo- 
cratic Conventions,  that  nominations  must  be  made 
by  a  two-thirds  vote.'  Van  Buren  had  a  majority, 
but  not  two-thirds.  After  eight  ballots  his  name 
was  withdrawn,  and  the  Convention  nominated 
James  K.  Polk,  of  Tennessee,  and  Silas  Wright,  of 
New  York.  Wright  declined,  and  George  M.  Dal- 
las, of  Pennsylvania,  was  substituted.  An  abortive 
Convention  of  office-holders  at  Baltimore  renomi- 
nated Tyler.  He  accepted  the  nomination,  but 
soon  withdrew. 

II.  The  Democratic  party  was  thus  committed 

to  the  annexation  of  Texas,  though  the  demand  for 

the  Tariff  of  1842,  and   for  "the  whole  of  Oregon 

or  none,  with  or  without  war  with  England,"  helped 

•to  gain  votes.     Nevertheless  Whig  success  seemed 

I  This  has  since  been  the  rule  in  Democratic  National  Conventions. 


1 844-]  Presidential  Election,  I47 

probable  until  the  appearance  of  an  unfortunate 
letter  of  Clay's,  in  which  he  tried  to  conciliate 
Southern  Democrats  by  saying  that  he  would  be 
"  glad  to  see  "  the  annexation  take  place  at  some 
future  time.  By  this  ill-judged  piece  of  diplomacy 
he  gained  no  Democratic  votes,  for  Polk  was  a 
warm  advocate  of  annexation,  and  lost  those  of  the 
extreme  Anti-Slavery  Whigs  and  Abolitionists,  who 
purposely  threw  away  on  Birney  and  Morris  a  num- 
ber of  votes  which  would  have  carried  New  York 
and  thus  elected  Clay.  They  were  therefore  the 
real  agents  in  the  election  of  Polk,  the  annexatiori 
of  Texas,  and  the  extension  of  Slavery  to  a  vast 
amount  of  new  territory. 

12.  The  Presidential  Election  in  November 
resulted  in  Democratic  success.  But  it  was  the 
most  closely  contested  election  in  our  history,  ex- 
cept those  of  1800  and  1876.  The  result  in  14  of 
the  26  States  was  doubtful  for  two  days,  and  most 
of  these  Chose  Polk  electors  by  very  slender  major- 
ities. In  several  of  them  the  small  Abolition  vote 
would  have  turned  the  scale,  and  chosen  Clay  elec- 
tors. A  majority  of  the  members  chosen  to  the 
XXIXth  Congress  were  in  favor  of  a  lower  Tariff 
than  that  of  1842. 

13.  Congress  met  December  2d,  1844.  A  bill  to 
XXVIIIth  Congress,     organize     a     territorial 

2d  Session.  government  for  Oregon, 

up  to  the  line  of  54^  40'  North  latitude,  and  be- 
yond the  line  claimed   by    England    as   the   true 


148  American  Politics.  [1845 

boundary,  was  passed  by  the  House,  but,  as  it  pro- 
hibited Slavery,  the  Senate  declined  to  consider  it. 
The  annexation  of  Texas  took  up  most  of  the 
time  of  this  Session.  Mexico  had  abolished  Slav- 
ery  twenty  years  before,  and  therefore  Texas  was 
by  Mexican  law  free  territory.*  Propositions  to 
prohibit  Slavery  in  Texas  were  voted  down.  The 
Joint  Resolution  to  annex  Texas  was  passed  by 
both  Houses,  and  signed  by  the  President.  It  pro- 
hibited Slavery  in  any  States  to  be  formed  from 
the  territory  of  Texas  north  of  the  Missouri  Com- 
promise Line  (36°  30'  North  latitude),  and  left  the 
question  to  be  settled  by  the  people  in  States 
formed  south  of  that  line. 

14.  Appropriations  were  made  at  this  Session  for 
both  Eastern  and  Western  harbors.  The  President 
disposed  of  them  by  a  pocket  veto.  In  February, 
1845,  the  electoral  votes  were  counted  and  were 
found  to  be,  for  Polk  and  Dallas  170,  and  for  Clay 
and  Frelinghuysen  105.  Polk  and  Dallas  were 
therefore  declared  elected.  March  3d,  Florida 
became  a  State  of  the  Union,  and  arrangements 
were  made  for  the  future  admission  of  Iowa.  The 
same  day  the  President  sent  a  messenger  to  secure 
the  consent  of  Texas  to  the  annexation.  March 
3d,  1845,  Congress  adjourned,  and  March  4th,  Polk 
and  Dallas  were  sworn  into  office. 

1  The  Republic  of  Texas,  however,  had  re-established  Slavery  by  law. 


CHAPTER    XVI. 

FIFTEENTH  ADMINISTRATION,   1845-1849. 

James  K.  Polk.  President.  George  M.  Dallas.  Vice-Presiden* 

XXTXth  and  XXXth  Congresses. 

Popular  vote  for  President  in  1844.     Dem.  1,337,243, 
Whig  1,299,068,  Ab.  62,300. 

1.  The  policy  of  Rotation  in  Office,  laid  down 
by  Jackson  in  1829  and  accepted  by  the  Whigs  in 
1841,  was  now  finally  established  by  the  new  Ad- 
ministration, It  has  been  the  rule  since  that  time 
that  every  Presidential  election  shall  be  marked  by 
a  wholesale  removal  of  office-holders,  whose  places 
are  filled  by  friends  of  the  new  Administration. 

2.  Annexation  had  been  accepted  by  the  Con- 
gress of  Texas  and  by  a  Popular  Convention. 
Mexico  was  so  occupied  by  intestine  dissensions 
and  revolution  that  her  exhibition  of  resentment 
was  at  first  confined  to  a  formal  protest,  and  the 
withdrawal  of  her  Minister  from  Washington.  No 
aggressive  movement  was  made  by  her  even  when 
United  States  troops  under  General  Taylor  occu- 
pied the  Eastern  bank  of  the  Nueces  River,  beyond 
which  Texas  had  never  hitherto  exercised  juris- 
diction. 

3.  Congress   met    December    ist,   1845,   with   a 

I4g 


I50  American  Politico,  [1846 

XXIXth  Congress,     Democratic    majority    in 
1st  Session.  both    branches.*     In    the 

House  John  W.  Davis,  of  Indiana,  a  Democrat, 
was  chosen  Speaker.  The  President's  Message 
condemned  all  Anti-Slavery  agitation,  recom- 
mended a  Sub-Treasury  and  a  Tariff  for  Revenue, 
and  spoke  of  the  annexation  of  Texas  as  a  matter 
which  concerned  only  Texas  and  the  United  States. 
December  29th  Texas  became  a  State  of  the 
Union.  December  31st  an  Act  was  passed  extend- 
ing the  United  States  revenue  system  over  the 
doubtful  territory  beyond  the  Nueces  River,  and  a 
revenue  officer  was  appointed  to  reside  in  the  new 
district.  Even  these  steps  did  not  induce  hostili- 
ties. Mexico  still  declared  her  willingness  to  nego- 
tiate concerning  the  disputed  territory  between  the 
Nueces  and  the  Rio  Grande. 

4.  In  March,  1846,  Hostilities  were  precipi- 
tated by  an  order  from  the  President  to  General 
Taylor  to  advance  from  the  Nueces  to  the  Rio 
Grande,  and  occupy  the  debatable  district.  He 
obeyed,  and  was  thus  brought  face  to  face  with 
Mexican  troops.  Early  in  May  Arista,  with  6000 
Mexicans,  crossed  the  Rio  Grande,  attacked  Taylor 
and  his  force  of  2,300  men  at  Palo  Alto,  and  was 
badly  beaten.  On  the  following  day  Taylor  as- 
sumed the  offensive,  attacked  Arista  at  Resaca  de 
la  Palma,  and  drove  him  in  headlong  retreat  across 
the  Rio  Grande. 

iSeaate,  30  Dein.,  35  Whig.    House,  143  Dem.,  75  Whig,  and  6  others.  . 


1846.]  IFar  with  Mexico.  151 

5.  May  nth,  1846,  the  President  sent  a  War 
Message  to  Congress  in  which  he  detailed  the 
preUminary  skirmishes  on  the  Rio  Grande,  declared 
that  Mexican  troops  had  at  last  shed  the  blood  of 
American  citizens  on  American  soil,  and  asked  for 
a  Declaration  of  War.  A  bill  to  recognize  the  ex- 
istence of  war,  and  to  appropriate  $10,000,000  for 
its  prosecution,  was  at  once  passed  by  both  Houses. 
Its  preamble  was  as  follows:  "Whereas,  by  the 
act  of  the  Republic  of  Mexico,  a  state  of  war  exists 
between  that  government  and  the  United  States." 
This  was  considered  a  falsehood  by  the  Whigs. 
They  thought  that  President  Polk  had  provoked 
hostilities  by  ordering  the  army  into  Mexican  terri- 
tory. Nevertheless  they  generally  voted,  under 
protest,  for  the  declaration,  on  the  ground  that  the 
army  had  been  forced  into  a  perilous  situation,  and 
must  be  rescued.  On  the  same  ground  they  gen- 
erally supported  the  war  until  its  conclusion.  The 
Liberty  party,  particularly  in  New  England,  opposed 
the  war  bitterly.' 

6.  August  8th  a  Special  Message  from  the  Presi- 
dent asked  for  money  with  which  to  purchase  terri- 
tory from  Mexico,  that  the  war  might  thus  be  set- 
tled by  negotiation.  A  bill  appropriating  $2,000,000 
for  this  purpose  at  once  brought  up  the  Slavery 
question,  for  it  was  certain  that  any  newly  acquired 
territory  would  swarm  with  slave-holders,  who 
would  demand  protection  in  the  possession  of  their 

I  Their  feeling  is  represented  by  Lowell's  "  Biglow  Papers." 


152  American  Politics.  [1846 

slaves.     In  the  House  Wilmot,  of  Pennsylvania,  on 

behalf  of  many  Northern  Democrats,  offered  an 
addition  to  the  bill,  applying  to  any  newly  acquired 
territory  the  provision  of  the  Ordinance  of  1787,* 
that  "neither  Slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude 
shall  ever  exist  in  any  part  of  said  territory,  except 
for  crime,  whereof  the  party  shall  first  be  duly  con- 
victed." This  was  the  celebrated  Wilmot  Pro- 
viso. The  Whigs  and  Northern  Democrats  united 
in  favor  of  it,  and  it  passed  the  House,  but  was 
sent  to  the  Senate  too  late  to  be  acted  upon. 

7.  During  this  Session  war  with  England  upon 
the  Oregon  Question  seemed  imminent,  l^y 
the  treaties  of  1803  with  France,  and  1819  with 
Spain,  the  United  States  had  acquired  the  rights  of 
those  powers  on  the  Pacific  coast,  north  of  Cali- 
fornia. The  Northern  boundary  of  the  ceded  ter- 
ritory was  unsettled.  The  United  States  claimed 
that  the  boundary  was  the  line  54°  40'  North  lati- 
tude. England  claimed  that  it  followed  the  Co- 
lumbia River.  By  a  convention  of  1827  the  dis- 
puted territory  had  been  held  by  both  countries 
jointly,  the  arrangement  being  terminable  by  either 
country  on  twelve  months'  notice.  The  last  Dem- 
ocratic Convention  had  demanded  the  "  ;v-occu- 
pation  "  of  the  whole  of  Oregon  (up  to  54®  40'), 
with  or  without  war  with  England.^  The  "  ;r-an- 
nexation  "  of  Texas  having  been  accomplished,  the 

I  See  page  60. 

a  Popularly  summed  up  as  "  fifty-four-forty-or-fight." 


1846.]      Oregon.— The   Tariff  of  \%A,^.  153 

Whigs  now  began  to  urge  the  Democrats  to  carry 
out  their  programme  in  regard  to  Oregon.  Against 
the  votes  of  the  extreme  Southern  Democrats,  the 
President  was  directed  to  give  the  requisite  twelve 
months'  notice  to  England. 

8.  June  15th,  1846,  the  Oregon  question  was 
settled  by  a  Treaty  with  England,  by  which 
the  United  States  abandoned  the  line  of  54°  40', 
and  accepted  that  of  49*^  North  latitude  as  the 
Northern  boundary.  A  bill  to  organize  the  Ter- 
ritory of  Oregon,  with  the  Wilmot  Proviso  attached, 
was  passed  by  the  House,  against  the  votes  of  the 
Southern  Democrats,  but  was  not  acted  upon  by 
the  Senate. 

9.  At  this  Session  the  Tariff  of  1846  was  passed 
by  a  party  vote.  It  followed  the  strict  construc- 
tionist theory  in  aiming  at  a  list  of  duties  sufficient 
only  to  provide  revenue  for  the  Government,  with- 
out regard  to  Protection.  A  River  and  Harbor 
Improvement  Bill  was  passed  by  both  Houses. 
It  was  vetoed  by  the  President  on  the  ground  that 
the  Constitution  did  not,  in  his  opinion,  give  the 
Federal  Government  any  power  to  appropriate 
money  for  the  purpose  of  making  Internal  Im- 
provements within  the  States.  Congress  adjourned 
August  13th,  1846. 

10.  Congress  met  December  7th,  1846.  Decem- 
XXIXth  Congress,     ber  28th,  Iowa  became  a 

2d  Session.  State  of  the  Union.     The 

President's  Message  announced  the  continued 


154  American  Politics.  [i847 

success  of  the  American  arms  in  Mexico,  and 
argued  that  the  Rio  Grande  should  be  considered 
the  Western  boundary  of  Texas.  The  necessary 
measures  for  the  prosecution  of  the  war  took  up 
most  of  the  time  of  this  Session.  A  bill  appro- 
priating $3,000,000  for  the  purchase  of  territory 
from  Mexico  was  passed  by  the  House  with  the 
Wilniot  Proviso  attached.  The  Senate  passed  the 
bill,  but  without  the  Wilmot  Proviso,  and,  after  an 
unavailing  struggle  by  the  Whigs,  the  House  adopt- 
ed the  bill  as  it  came  from  the  Senate.  The  bill  to 
organize  the  Territory  of  Oregon,  with  the  Wilmot 
Proviso,  was  again  passed  by  the  House,  and  again 
left  without  action  by  the  Senate.  A  motion  in  the 
House  by  a  Southern  member  to  recognize  the 
Missouri  Compromise  Line  (36°  30')  as  extending 
to  the  Pacific  was  lost  by  a  sectional  vote.  South 
against  North.  A  River  and  Harbor  Improvement 
Bill  was  again  passed,  but  so  near  the  end  of  the 
Session  that  the  President  was  able  to  dispose  of  it 
by  a  "'  pocket  veto."     Congress  adjourned  March 

3^^  1847- 

II.    Congress  met  December  6th,   1847,  with  a 
XXXth  Congress,     Democratic  majority  in  the 
1st  Session.  Senate,    and  a  Whig    ma- 

jority in  the  House.'  Robert  C.  Winthrop,  of 
Massachusetts,  a  Whig,  was  chosen  Speaker  of  the 
House.  The  subject  of  Internal  Improve- 
ments  was   again   brought   up,   and    the  House 

I  Senate,  35  Dem.,  21  Whig.     House,  117  Whig,  108  Dem. 


1 348.]  Peace  ivith  Mexico.  1 55 

resolved  by  a  large  majority  that  the  General 
Government  had  the  power  to  improve  harbors  and 
rivers  for  the  advantage  of  commerce  and  for  the 
common  defense.  A  resolution  embodying  the 
substance  of  the  Wilmot  Proviso  was  tabled.  It 
did  not  have,  as  in  the  last  Congress,  the  whole 
Free  State  Democratic  vote  in  its  favor.* 

12.  Peace  was  made  with  Mexico  in  February, 
184S,  and  a  large  increase  of  territory  was  thereby 
gained  by  the  United  States.  As  a  compromise 
between  the  advocates  and  the  opponents  of  the 
extension  of  Slavery,  a  bill  was  passed  by  the 
Senate,  establishing  territorial  governments  in  Ore- 
gon, New  Mexico  and  California,  with  a  provision 
that  all  questions  concerning  Slavery  in  those  Ter- 
ritories should  be  referred  to  the  United  States 
Supreme  Court  for  decision.  It  was  voted  for  by 
the  members  from  Slave  States,  and  lost  in  the 
House.  A  bill  was  then  passed  in  the  House,  by 
a  sectional  vote,  to  organize  the  Territory  of 
Oregon,  without  Slavery.  This  was  passed  by 
the  Senate,  with  an  amendment  declaring  that  the 
Missouri  Compromise  Line  extended  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  This  would  have  divided  the  United  States 
into  two  parts,  the  Northern  free,  and  the  Southern 
slave.  The  amendment  was  rejected  by  the  House, 
again  by  a  sectional  vote,  and,  the  Senate  with- 
drawing,  the   bill    passed.      Congress    adjourned 

I  Twenty-five  Free  State  Democrats  voted  against  it. 


156  America?t  Politics,  [1848 

August  14th,  1848.  May  29th  Wisconsin  had 
become  a  State  of  the  Union. 

13.  The  Democratic  National  Convention 

met  at  Baltimore,  May  2  2(1,  1848.  It  renewed  the 
strict  constructionist  platform  of  1840  and  1844, 
and  nominated  Lewis  Cass,  of  Michigan,  and 
William  O.  Butler,  of  Kentucky.  A  resolution  that 
Congress  had  no  power  to  interfere  with  Slavery, 
either  in  the  States  or  in  the  Territories,  was  voted 
down  by  a  heavy  majority.  The  Whig  National 
Convention  met  at  Philadelphia,  June  7th,  and 
nominated  Zachary  Taylor,  of  Louisiana,  and  Mil- 
lard Fillmore,  of  New  York.  No  platform  was 
adopted,  and  resolutions  affirming  the  Wilmot  Pro- 
viso as  a  party  principle  were  repeatedly  voted 
down.  It  was  thus  evident  that  the  Whigs  were 
not  ready  to  become  an  Anti-Slavery  party,  nor 
were  the  Democrats  ready  to  become  a  Pro-Slavery 
party.  The  State  of  New  York  had  sent  two 
delegations  to  the  Democratic  Convention,  the 
"  Hunkers,"  or  Conservatives,  who  wished  to  leave 
the  Slavery  question  in  abeyance,  and  the  "Barn- 
burners,"' or  Free  Soil  Democrats,  who  opposed 
any  further  extension  of  Slavery  into  the  Ter- 
ritories. The  Convention  admitted  both,  dividing 
the  vote  of  New  York  between  them.  The  Barn- 
burners  withdrew,  and  attended  the  National  Con- 
vention of  a  new   party,  the  Free   Soilers,  at 

I  This  was  originally  a  term  applied  by  their  opponents  to  their  supposed 
revolutionary  principles.     It  made  no  charge  of  practical  arson. 


1848.]  Presidential  Election.  157 

Buffalo,  August  9th.  It  adopted  a  platform  declar- 
ing that  Congress  had  no  more  power  to  make  a 
slave  than  to  make  a  king,  and  that  there  should 
be  no  more  Slave  States,  and  no  more  Slave  Ter- 
ritories. It  nominated  Martin  Van  Buren,  of  New 
York,  and  Charles  Francis  Adams,  of  Massachusetts. 

14.  The  Free  Soilers  (or  Free  Democracy)  were 
joined  by  the  old  Liberty  party,  and  by  many 
Democrats  who  were  offended  at  the  support  given 
by  Southern  Democrats  to  the  efforts  to  establish 
Slavery  in  the  territory  lately  won  from  Mexico. 
In  the  South  many  former  Democrats  preferred  a 
slave-holding  candidate  without  a  platform  to  a 
non  slave-holding  candidate  on  a  platform  in  which 
support  of  Slavery  had  been  voted  down.  The 
Presidential  Election  in  November  resulted  in 
the  success  of  the  Whig  electors  in  a  majority  both 
of  the  Free  and  of  the  Slave  States.  The  belief  of 
the  Northern  Democrats  that  they  had  been  be- 
trayed by  the  Southern  Democrats  in  the  election 
had  its  natural  effect  in  the  next  Session  of  Con- 
gress, where  the  Free  State  Democrats  voted  for 
every  measure  aimed  at  Slavery. 

15.  Congress  met  December  5th,  1848.  A  bill 
XXXth  Congress,     to  organize  the  Territories 

2d  Session.  of  New  Mexico  and  Cali- 

fornia, with  the  Wilmot  Proviso,  was  passed  by  the 
House  by  a  sectional  vote,  almost  all  the  Free  State 
Democrats  voting  for  it.  The  Senate  refused  to 
consider  it.     The  House  then  passed  a  resolution 


I 

158  American  Politics.  [1849 

condemning  the  sale  of  slaves  in  Washington  as 
"  notoriously  a  reproach  to  our  country  throughout 
Christendom,"  which  roused  the  indignation  of 
Southern  members.  Late  in  the  Session  the  Senate 
passed  the  General  Appropriation  Bill  for  govern- 
ment expenses,  with  a  "rider,"'  organizing  the 
Territories  of  New  Mexico  and  California, 
permitting  Slavery.  Its  object  was  to  compel  the 
House  to  yield,  or  leave  the  Government  penniless. 
The  House  threw  this  responsibility  back  upon  the 
Senate  by  substituting  for  its  rider  a  provision  that 
until  July  4th,  1850,  the  existing  Mexican  laws  of 
those  Territories  should  remain  in  force.  As 
Mexico  had  abolished  Slavery  this  would  have 
made  the  new  Territories  free.  On  the  last  night 
of  the  Session  the  Senate  unwillingly  struck  out  its 
"  rider  "  and  the  House  substitute,  and  passed  the 
Appropriation  Bill  as  it  originally  came  from  the 
House. 

16.  Another  River  and  Harbor  Improvement  Bill 
was  passed  by  the  House,  but  was  not  acted  upon 
by  the  Senate.  In  February,  1849,  the  electoral 
votes  were  counted  and  were  found  to  be,  for  Tay- 
lor and  Fillmore  163,  and  for  Cass  and  Butler  127. 
Taylor  and  Fillmore  were  therefore  declared 
elected.  March  3d,  1849,  Congress  adjourned, 
and  March  5th  Taylor  and  Fillmore  were  sworn 
into  office. 

I  That  is,  an  addition  having  no  reference  to  the  subject  matter  of  the 
ori^nal  bilL 


CHAPIER   XVn. 

SIXTEENTH    ADMINISTRATION,    1849-1853. 

25achary  Taylor,  President.  Millard  Fillmore,  Vice-President. 

XXXTst  and  XXXIId  Congresses. 

Popular  vote  for  President  in  1848  :   IV/iig  1,360,101, 
Deni.  1,220,544,  Free  Soil  291,263. 

1.  Taylor's  Inauguration  marks  the  beginning 
of  a  Process  of  Change  which  in  a  few  years 
destroyed  one  of  the  two  great  parties,  and  changed 
the  character  of  the  other.  The  Free  Soil  Demo- 
crats, who  opposed  any  extension  of  Slavery  to  the 
Territories,  and  had  therefore  abandoned  the  Dem- 
ocratic party,  saw  no  reason  for  joining  the  Whig 
party,  which  had  distinctly  rejected  the  principle  of 
the  Wilmot  Proviso.  The  consequent  loss  of  the 
Democrats,  in  numbers,  was  more  than  balanced 
by  the  accession  of  Pro-Slavery  Whigs  who  made 
their  new  party  progressively  more  Pro-Slavery. 
The  Whig  losses  had  no  compensating  gains.  The 
disintegration  of  the  party  continued  from  its  suc- 
cess in  electing  a  slave-holding  President  in  1848 
until  the  rise  of   its  anti-slavery  successor  in  1855- 

56. 

2.  The    accession   of    Pro-Slavery    Whigs  soon 

159 


i6o  American  Politics.  [1849 

brought  prominently  forward  the  doctrine  which 
the  last  Democratic  National  Convention  had  voted 
down,  that  the  Constitution  gave  Congress  no 
power  to  interfere  with  Slavery  in  the  Territories, 
and  that  the  people  of  each  Territory  should  allow 
or  prohibit  Slavery  as  they  pleased,  lliis  was 
Squatter  Sovereignty.*  Of  course  it  would 
follow  from  this  that  the  Missouri  Compromise  of 
1S20  was  illegal  and  unconstitutional,  as  it  abol- 
ished Slavery  in  the  Territories  North  of  2>^°  30'. 
But  this  consequence  was  not  at  first  mentioned, 
and,  perhaps,  not  thought  of. 

3.  As  Squatter  Sovereignty  was  a  strict  construc- 
tionist theory,  it  was  more  easy  to  force  it  upon 
the  Democratic  than  upon  the  Whig  party.  From 
this  time,  therefore,  Southern  leaders  aimed  to  con 
trol  the  Democratic  party  more  thoroughly,  aban- 
doning its  opponent  after  an  effort  to  use  it  as  an 
instrument  in  completing  the  work  of  Democracy' 
The  struggle  between  the  advocates  of  the  Wilmot 
Proviso,  which  forbade  Slavery  in  the  new  terri- 
tory, and  of  Squatter  Sovereignty,  which  allowed 
its  introduction,  if  desired  by  the  people,  was  pre- 
cipitated by  the  Discovery  of  Gold  in  California. 
The  consequent  rush  of  immigration  increased  the 
population  of  California  so  rapidly  that  a  State  con- 
stitution was  ratified  November  13,  1849,  expressly 
prohibiting  Slavery.     This  practical  application  of 

I  Otherwise  called  Popular  Sovereignty. 
8  At  the  Presidential  Convention  of  185a, 


1850.]  The  Compromise  ^/  1850.  16 1 

Squatter  Sovereignty  was  equally  surprising  and 
unwelcome  to  its  first  advocates. 

4.  Congress  met  December  3d,  1849,  with  a  Dem- 
XXXIst  Congress,  ocratic  majority  in  the  Sen- 

ist  Session.  ate,  and  no  party  majority 

in  the  House,  the  Free  Soilers  holding  the  balance 
of  power  between  the  other  two  parties.*  The  Free 
Soilers  refused  to  vote  for  either  the  Whig  or  the 
Democratic  candidates  for  Speaker,  and,  after  (i2 
unavailing  ballots  in  which  no  one  had  a  majority 
of  all  the  votes,  it  was  agreed  that  the  highest  num- 
ber of  votes  should  elect.  The  House  then  chose 
as  Speaker  Howell  Cobb,  of  Georgia,  a  Democrat 
and  an  advocate  of  the  extension  of  Slavery. 

5.  California  applied  for  admission  as  a  State 
February  13th,  1850.  Shortly  before  the  applica- 
tion Clay  had  submitted  a  proposition  to  compro- 
mise the  conflicting  claims  of  the  advocates  of  Slav- 
ery extension  and  of  Slavery  restriction.  His  pro- 
position included  seven  points  :  (i)  the  admission 
of  any  new  States  properly  formed  from  Texas, 
(2)  the  admission  of  California,  (3)  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  Territories  of  New  Mexico  and  Utah, 
without  the  Wilmot  Proviso  {i.e.  with  Squatter  Sov- 
ereignty), (4)  the  passage  of  the  last  two  measures 
in  one  bill,  (5)  the  payment  of  a  money  indemnity 
to  Texas,  (6)  a  more  rigid  Fugitive  Slave  Law,  (7) 
the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade,  but  not  of  Slavery, 

I  Senate,  35   Dem.,  25  Whig,   2   Free   Soilers.     House,   no   Dem.,  105 
Whig,  9  Free  Soilers. 

II 


1 62  American  Politics.  [1850 

in  the  District  of  Columbia.  This  was  the  basis  of 
the  Compromise  of  1850.  It  was  opposed  by 
the  Whigs  and  Free  Soileis,  who  considered  it  a 
surrender  of  free  soil  to  the  slave  power,  and  by 
the  extreme  Southern  Democrats,  who  considered 
it  a  surrender  of  the  slave-holder's  right  to  hold  his 
property  and  slaves  wherever  he  pleased  to  settle. 
But  it  was  undoubtedly  satisfactory  to  the  great 
majority  of  the  people,  as  averting  civil  war  and 
disunion. 

6.  The  Compromise  of  1850  was  originally  united 
in  one  bill.'  It  was  debated  throughout  the  Ses- 
sion, and  gradually  divided  into  a  number  of  sep- 
arate bills.  These  were  all  passed,  during  the 
months  of  August  and  September,  by  both  Houses, 
and  became  law.  California  thus  became  a  State 
of  the  Union  September  9th,  1850.  Perhaps  the 
most  important,  in  its  bearing  upon  future  events, 
was  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law,  which  was  much 
more  stringent  in  its  provisions  than  the  one  already 
in  existence.  It  directed  and  encouraged  the  sur- 
render of  fugitive  slaves  by  United  States  Commis- 
sioners in  the  North,  without  any  trial  by  jury,  and 
commanded  all  good  citizens  to  aid  in  making  ar- 
rests. The  work  of  chasing  and  arresting  fugitive 
slaves  in  the  North^-rn  States  was  at  once  begun, 
and  carried  on  diligently,  often  inhumanly.  The 
consequent  disgust  and  horror  caused  the  passage, 
by  some  Northern  Legislatures,  of  Personal  Lib- 

I  Commonly  called  the  Omnibus  Bill,  from  its  all-embracing  nature. 


1 85 1.]  An  hiterval  of  Calm,  163 

erty  Laws,  intended  to  protect  free  negroes  falsely 
alleged  to  be  fugitive  slaves.  Congress  adjourned 
September  30th,  1850. 

7.  July  9th  President  Taylor  died,  and  Vice- 
President  Fillmore  became  President  in  his 
stead.  The  change  had  no  effect  upon  party  con- 
tests, the  Administration  remaining  Whig,  as  before. 

8.  Congress  met  December  2d,  1850.  There  was 
XXXIst  Congress,    little  party  contest  at  this 

2d   Session.  Session.      The     questions 

of  Tariff,  Internal  Improvements,  and  a  National 
Bank,  had,  for  a  time  at  least,  disappeared.  On 
the  question  of  Slavery,  which  had  so  suddenly 
sprung  into  controlling  interest,  neither  party  was 
ready  to  take  a  decided  stand.  The  business  of 
this  Session  was  therefore  confined  to  routine,  with 
occasional  debates  on  Slavery.  Congress  ad- 
journed March  3d,  1851. 

9.  Congress  met  December  ist,  185 1,  with  a 
XXXIId    Congress,      Democratic    majority  in 

ISt  Session.  both   branches.^     In   the 

House  Linn  Boyd,  of  Kentucky,  a  Democrat,  was 
chosen  Speaker.  The  increased  Democratic  major- 
ity in  Congress  marks  the  satisfaction  with  which 
the  people  generally  had  received  the  Compromise 
of  1850,  as  they  understood  it.  There  was  little 
party  contest  at  this  Session.  The  question  of 
Slavery  was  considered  settled,  and  the  Democratic 

I  Senate,  34  Dem.,   23   Whigs,  3  Free  Boilers.     House,  140  Dem.,  88 
Whies.  "i  Free  Soilers. 


164  American  Politics.  [1852 

majority  generally  supported  the  measures  recom- 
mended by  the  Administration  for  carrying  on  the 
government.  This  Session,  however,  is  noteworthy 
for  the  first  mention  of  a  measure  destined  to  trans- 
fer the  conflict  between  Slavery  and  its  opponents 
to  the  country  west  of  Missouri,  stretching  to  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  and  called,  from  its  principal 
river,  the  Platte  Country.'  It  had  become  a 
through  route  to  California,  and  its  population  was 
increasing.  It  now  applied  for  organization  as  a 
Territory,  but  the  application  was  not  acted  upon. 
Congress  adjourned  August  31st,  1852. 

10.  The  Democratic  National  Convention 
met  at  Baltimore,  June  ist,  1852.  It  renewed  the 
strict  constructionist  platforms  of  preceding  Con- 
ventions, endorsed  the  Kentucky  and  Virginia 
Resolutions  of  1798,  and  pledged  the  Democratic 
party  to  the  faithful  observance  of  the  Compromise 
of  1850,  including  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law,  and  to 
a  steady  opposition  to  any  agitation  of  the  Slavery 
question.  It  nominated  Franklin  Pierce,  of  New 
Hampshire,  and  William  R.  King,  of  Alabama. 
The  Whig  National  Convention  met  at  Balti- 
more, June  i6th.  It  adopted  a  loose  construction- 
ist platform,  more  cautiously  worded  than  those 
of  former  Conventions,  and  endorsed  the  Compro- 
mise of  1850  and  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law  in  terms 
very  similar  to  those  of  the  Democratic  platform. 
After  a  session  of  six  days   it   nominated  Winfield 

X  Now  called  Kansas. 


1852.]  Nebraska.  165 

Scott,  of  Virginia,  and  William  A.  Graham,  of 
North  Carolina.  The  Free  Soil  Democratic 
Convention  met  at  Pittsburgh,  August  nth.  It 
adopted  a  platform  declaring  Slavery  to  be  a  sin 
against  God  and  a  crime  against  man,  and  denounc- 
ing the  Compromise  of  1850,  and  the  two  parties 
who  supported  it.  It  nominated  John  P.  Hale,  of 
New  Hampshire,  and  George  W.  Julian,  of  Indiana. 

11.  The  success  of  the  Southern  delegates  in 
committing  the  Whig  Convention  to  the  support  of 
the  Compromise  of  1850  did  not  injure  the  party 
so  much  at  the  time  as  it  did  afterward,  when  the 
real  nature  of  that  Compromise  was  declared.'  At 
the  Presidential  Election  in  November  its  pop- 
ular vote  was  slightly  increased  since  the  previous 
election,  although  most  of  the  Free  Soil  vote  was 
drawn  from  it.  Nevertheless  the  Wliig  electors 
carried  only  four  States,^  the  other  twenty-seven 
States  choosing  Democratic  electors,  though  gen- 
erally by  very  small  majorities. 

12.  Congress  met  December  6th,  1852.  A  bill 
XXXIid  Congress,    was  passed  by  the  House  to 

2d   Session.  organize   the    Territory 

of  Nebraska,  with  the  same  boundaries  as 
the  formerly  proposed  Territory  of  Platte.  It  was 
tabled  in  the  Senate.  The  opposition  to  it  came 
from  Southern  members  who  were  preparing,  but 

1  The  Whig  party  was  then  forcibly  said  to  have  died  "  of  an  attempt  to 
swallow  the  Fugitive  Steve  Law." 

2  Massachusetts,  Vermont,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee. 


1 66  American  Politics.  [1853 

were  not  yet  ready  to  announce,  their  next  advanced 
claim,  that  the  Compromise  of  1850  had  superseded 
and  voided  that  of  1820,  abolished  the  prohibition 
of  Slavery  in  the  territory  North  of  the  Missouri 
Compromise  Line  {2,6°  30'  North  latitude),  and 
opened  it  to  the  operation  of  Squatter  Sovereignty. 
In  February,  1853,  the  electoral  votes  were  counted, 
and  were  found  to  be,  for  Pierce  and  King  254, 
and  for  Scott  and  Graham  42.  Pierce  and  King 
were  therefore  declared  elected.  March  3d,  1853, 
Congress  adjourned,  and  March  4th  Pierce  was 
sworn  into  office.* 


I  Vice-President  King,  on  account  of  illness,  was  sworn  into  office  after- 
varcL 


CHAPTER   XVIII. 

SEVENTEENTH  ADMINISTRATION,  1853-1857. 

Franklin  Pierce,  President.  William  R.  Klingr,  Vice-President. 

XXXIIId  and  XXXIVth  Congresses. 

Popular  vote  for  President  in  1852.-  De)n.  1,601,- 
474,  Whig  1,386,578,  Free  Soil  156,149. 

1.  Congress   met  December   5th,    1853.      The 
XXXIIId    Congress,    Democratic  majority    in 

1st  Session.  both  branches   was    in- 

creased.* In  the  House  Speaker  Boyd  was  again 
elected.  The  President's  Message  assured  those 
who  had  elected  him  that  he  intended  to  carry  out 
the  Compromise  of  1850,  in  all  its  parts.  A  Senate 
bill  to  organize  the  Territory  of  Nebraska 
was  interfered  with  by  a  demand  from  a  Southern 
Senator  that  the  Missouri  Compromise  should  not 
be  so  construed  as  to  prohibit  Slavery  in  the  new 
Territory.  The  bill  was  at  once  dropped.  But  a 
sufficient  number  of  Free  State  Democrats  soon 
acquiesced  in  the  Southern  demand  to  make  it  a 
success. 

2.  January    23d,    1854,    the    famous   Kansas- 

I  Senate,   36  Dem.,  20  Whigs,  2  Free  Soilers.     House,   159   Detn.-   71 
Whigs,  4  Free  Soilers. 

167 


1 68  American  Politics.  [1854 

Nebraska  Bill  was  introduced  in  the  House.  It 
divided  tlie  territory  covered  by  the  previous 
Nebraska  bill  into  two  Territories,  one  directly 
west  of  Missouri  and  between  the  parallels  of  37°  and 
40°,  to  be  called  Kansas,  and  the  other  north  of  this 
and  between  the  parallels  of  40°  and  43°,  to  be  called 
Nebraska.  According  to  the  Compromise  of  1820 
both  of  these  Territories  were  forever  barred  to 
Slavery.  But  this  bill  distinctly  declared  that  the 
Compromise  of  1820  was  inconsistent  with  the 
constitutional  principle  of  non-interference  with 
Slavery  by  Congress,  that  it  was  therefore  inoper- 
ative, void,  and  repealed  by  the  Compromise  of 
1850,  and  that  hereafter  each  Territory,  whether 
north  or  south  of  the  parallel  of  2>^'^  30',  should 
admit  or  exclude  Slavery  as  its  people  should 
decide.  This  bill  was  passed  by  the  Senate,  its 
only  opponents  being  the  Northern  Whigs  and 
Free  Soilers. 

3.  The  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill  did  not  come  up 
in  the  House  until  about  two  months  later.  The 
Southern  Democrats  and  Southern  Whigs  united 
in  favor  of  it.  The  Northern  Democrats  were 
evenly  divided,'  and  the  Northern  Whigs  and  Free 
Soilers  united  against  it.  The  division  between 
the  Democratic  opponents  and  advocates  of  the 
Kansas-Nebraska  Bill  was  soon  healed.  The 
division  between  Northern  and  Southern  Whigs 
was  final.     The  Northern  Whigs  at  once  repudiated 

1  There  were  88  Northern  Democratic  votes,  44  for,  and  44  against  it. 


1854]  The  American  Party,  169 

their  old  party  name,  and  were  called  at  first  Anti- 
Nebraska  Men.  The  Southern  Whigs  kept  the 
party  name  alive  a  few  years  longer,  but  their 
principles  on  the  controlling  question  of  Slavery 
were  so  similar  to  those  of  the  Southern  Democracy 
that  they  can  hardly  be  called  a  distinct  party. 
Congress  adjourned  August  7th,  1854. 

4.  A  new  party  had  by  this  time  risen  to  active 
importance  in  American  politics.  It  appeared  in 
1852,'  in  the  form  of  a  secret,  oath-bound  organi- 
zation, of  whose  name,  nature,  and  objects,  nothing 
was  told  even  to  its  members  until  they  had 
reached  its  higher  degrees.  Their  consequent 
declaration  that  they  knew  nothing  about  it  gave 
the  society  its  popular  name  of  Know  Nothings. 
It  accepted  the  name  of  the  American  Party. '' 
Its  design  was  to  oppose  the  easy  naturalization  of 
foreigners,  and  to  aid  the  election  of  native-born 
citizens  to  office.  Its  nominations  were  made  by 
secret  conventions  of  delegates  from  the  various 
lodges,  and  were  voted  for  by  all  members  under 
penalty  of  expulsion  in  case  of  refusal.  At  first, 
by  endorsing  the  nominations  of  one  or  other  of 
the  two  great  parties,  it  decided  many  elections. 
After  the  passage  of  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill,  the 

I  The  Hartford  Convention  had  complained  of  the  easy  naturalization  of 
foreigners.  A  "  Native  American  "  party  had  existed  in  New  York  City 
in  1835,  but  it  was  only  local,  and  soon  disappeared.  In  1843  a  new 
"  Native  American  "  party  had  arisen  in  New  York  City,  and  extended  to 
Philadelphia.  Its  Whig  members  left  it  in  1844  because  of  its  refusal  to 
vote  for  Ciay,  and  it  too  disappeared. 


I/O  American  Politics.  [i^S^ 

Know-Nothing  organization  was  adopted  by  many 
Southern  Whigs,  who  were  unwilling  to  unite  with 
the  Democracy,  and  became,  for  a  time,  a  national 
party.  It  carried  nine  of  the  State  elections  in 
1855,  and  in  1856  nominated  Presidential  candi- 
dates. After  that  time  its  Southern  members 
gradually  united  with  the  Democracy,  and  the 
Know  Nothing  party  disappeared  from  politics. 

5.  Congress  met  December  4th,  1854.     There  was 
XXXIIId  Congress,    little  party  contest  at  this 

2d  Session.  Session,  which  was  chiefly 

noteworthy  for  a  revival  of  the  question  of  In- 
ternal Improvements,  it  secured  Democratic 
votes  by  providing  for  detached  public  improve- 
ments. A  River  and  Harbor  bill  was  passed  by 
both  Houses,  but  was  vetoed  by  the  President. 
Congress  adjourned  March  3d,  1855. 

6.  Congress   met  December  3d,   1855,'    with    a 
XXXI Vth  Congress,     Democratic  majority    in 

1st  Session.  the  Senate.    In  the  House 

the  "  Anti-Nebraska  men  "  had  a  majority,  but  so 
many  of  them  were  Know  Nothings  that  no  candi- 
date could  control  their  entire  vote.  After  130 
ballots  for  Speaker,  lasting  until  February,  1856,  it 
was  agreed  that  the  highest  number  of  votes  should 
elect,  and  N.  P.  Banks,  Jr.,  of  Massachusetts,  an 
"  Anti-Nebraska  man,"  was  chosen.  The  remain- 
ing  time    of   this    Session    was  occupied    by   the 

1  Senate,  34  Dem.,  25  Opposition.    House,  117  Anti-Nebraska,  79  Dem., 
37  Pro-Slavery  Whigs. 


1836.]  The  Republican  Party.  171 

Kansas  Troubles,  which  will  be  referred  to 
hereafter.  A  House  Committee  was  sent  to  Kansas, 
and  reported  that  no  free  or  fair  election  had  ever 
taken  place  in  that  Territory.  The  House  voted 
an  appropriation  for  the  army,  with  a  proviso  for- 
bidding the  use  of  the  army  to  enforce  the  acts  of 
the  Pro-Slavery  Kansas  Legislature.*  The  Senate 
rejected  the  proviso,  and  during  the  disagreement 
between  the  Houses  the  time  fixed  for  adjournment 
arrived,  and  Congress  adjourned  August  i8th,  1856, 
leaving  the  Army  Bill  unpassed.  The  President 
at  once  called  an  Extra  Session  of  Congress,  in 
which  the  Army  Bill,  without  the  proviso,  was 
passed,  and  Congress  again  adjourned  August  30th, 
1856. 

7.  Early  in  1856  the  "  Anti-Nebraska  men  "  had 
adopted  the  name  of  the  Republican  Party.^ 
The  new  name  was  at  once  recognized  by  the 
Democrats  with  the  addition  of  a  contemptuous 
adjective  {Black  Republican).  It  will  be  seen  that 
the  new  party  was  a  loose  constructionist  party,  in- 
heriting the  desire  of  the  Federalists  and  Whigs 
for  Protective  Tariffs,  Internal  Improvements,  and 
a  system  of  National  Bank  Currency,  and  adding 
to  them  the  further  principle  that  the  Federal 
Government  had  power  to  control  Slavery  in  the 
Territories.     The  new  party  had  therefore  an  as- 

1  See  page   174. 

2  First  proposed,  it  is  said,  by  Governor  Seward,  of  New  York,  late  in 
1855- 


1^2  American  Politics.  [1855 

sured  existence  from  the  first,  for  its  additional 
loose  constructionist  principle  was  the  only  logical 
answer  to  the  strict  constructionist  principle  still 
avowed  by  the  Democrats,  that  Congress  had  no 
constitutional  power  to  interfere  for  or  against 
Slavery  in  the  Territories. 

8.  The  attention  of  the  whole  country  had  now 
been  turned  to  the  struggle  provoked  by  the  Kansas- 
Nebraska  Bill,  and  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri  Com- 
promise. The  fertile  soil  of  Kansas  had  been 
offered  as  a  prize  to  be  contended  for  by  Free  and 
Slave  States,  and  both  had  accepted  the  contest. 
The  Slave  State  settlers  were  first  in  the  field. 
The  slave-holders  of  Western  Missouri,  which  shut 
off  Kansas  from  the  Free  States,  had  crossed  the 
border,  pre-empted  lands,  and  warned  Free  State 
immigrants  not  to  pass  through  Missouri.  The 
first  election  of  a  delegate  to  Congress  took  place 
November  29th,  1854,  and  was  carried  by  organized 
bands  of  Missourians,  who  moved  over  the  border 
on  election  day,  voted,  and  returned  at  once  to 
Missouri.  The  spring  election  of  1855,  for  a  Ter- 
ritorial Legislature,  was  carried  in  the  same 
fashion.  In  July,  1855,  this  Legislature,  all  Pro- 
Slavery,  met  at  Pawnee,  and  adopted  a  State  Con- 
stitution. To  save  trouble  it  adopted  the  laws 
of  the  State  of  Missouri  entire,  with  a  series  of 
original  statutes  denouncing  the  penalty  of  death 
for  nearly  fifty  offenses  against  Slavery. 

9.  All  through  the  spring  and  summer  of  1855 


1 85  5-]  The  Kansas  Struggle.  173 

Kansas  was  the  scene  of  almost  continuous  con- 
flict, the  Border  Ruffians  of  Missouri  endeavor- 
ing to  drive  out  the  Free  State  Settlers  by 
murder  and  arson,  and  the  Free  State  settlers 
retaliating.  The  cry  of  "  bleeding  Kansas  "  went 
through  the  North.  Emigration  societies  were 
formed  in  the  Free  States  to  aid,  arm,  equip,  and 
protect  intending  settlers.  These,  prevented  from 
passing  through  Missouri,  took  a  more  Northern 
route  through  Iowa  and  Nebraska,  and  moved  into 
Kansas  like  an  invading  army.  The  Southern 
States  also  sent  parties  of  intending  settlers.  But 
these  were  not  generally  slave-holders,  but  young 
men  anxious  for  excitement.  They  did  not  go  to 
Kansas,  as  their  opponents  did,  to  plow,  sow, 
gather  crops  and  build  up  homes.  Therefore, 
though  their  first  rapid  and  violent  movements 
were  successful,  their  subsequent  increase  of  re- 
sources and  numbers  was  not  equal  to  that  of  the 
Free  State  settlers. 

10.  The  Territory  soon  became  practically 
divided  into  a  Pro-Slavery  district,  and  a  Free 
State  district.  Leavenworth  in  the  former,  and 
Topeka  and  Lawrence  in  the  latter,  were  the  chief 
towns.  September  5th,  1855,  a  Free  State  Con- 
vention at  Topeka  repudiated  the  Territorial 
Legislature  and  all  its  works,  as  the  acts  and  deeds 
of  Missourians  alone.  It  also  resolved  to  order  a 
separate  election  for  delegate  to  Congress,  so  as  to 


174  American  Politics,  [1856 

force  that  body  to  decide  the  question'  and  to  form 
a  State  government.  January  15th,  1856,  the  Free 
State  settlers  elected  State  officers  under  the 
Topeka  Free  State  Constitution.^ 

ir.  The  Federal  Executive  now  entered  the 
field.  January  24th,  1856,  the  President,  in  a 
Special  Message  to  Congress,  endorsed  the  Pro- 
Slavery  Legislature  and  pronounced  the  attempt 
to  form  a  Free  State  government,  without  the 
approval  of  the  Federal  authorities  in  the  Territory, 
to  be  an  act  of  rebellion.  He  then  issued  a  proc- 
lamation, warning  all  persons  engaged  in  disturb- 
ing the  peace  of  Kansas  to  retire  to  their  homes, 
and  placed  United  States  troops  at  the  orders  of 
Governor  Shannon  to  enforce  the  (Pro-Slavery) 
laws  of  the  Territory. 

12.  The  population  of  Kansas  was  now  so  large 
that  very  considerable  armies  were  mustered  on 
both  sides,  and  a  desultory  civil  war  was  kept  up 
until  nearly  the  end  of  the  year.  During  its  pro- 
gress two  Free  State  towns,  Tawrence  and  Ossawat- 
tomie,  were  sacked.  July  4th,  1856,  the  Free  State 
Legislature  attempted  to  assemble  at  Topeka,  but 
was  at  once  dispersed  by  a  body  of  United  States 
troops,  under  orders  from  \Vashington.^     Septem- 

1  The  question  was  decided  by  the  admission  of  the  Pro-Slavery  dele- 
gate. 

2  Under  this  (Topeka)  Constitution  Kansas  applied  for  admission  as  a 
State  and  was  rejected. 

3  For  the  consequent  attempt  of  the  House  to  limit  this  use  of  the  army 
Bee  page  171. 


1856.]  Assault  tipon  Sumner,  175 

ber  9th,  a  new  Governor,  Geary  of  Pennsylvania, 
arrived  and  succeeded  in  keeping  the  peace  to 
some  extent  by  a  mixture  of  temporizing  and 
decided  measures.  By  the  end  of  the  year  he  even 
claimed  to  have  established  order  in  the  Territory. 

13.  The  heat  of  the  Kansas  discussion  in  Con- 
gress was  marked  by  an  Assault  upon  Charles 
Sumner,  Senator  from  Massachusetts.  In  a 
speech  on  the  Kansas  question  he  had  criticised 
Senator  Butler,  of  South  Carolina.  After  the 
Senate's  adjournment.  May  22d,  1856,  Representa- 
tive Brooks,  of  South  Carolina,  a  relative  of  Butler^ 
entered  the  Senate  chamber,  struck  Sumner  sense- 
less to  the  floor,  and  then  beat  him  so  cruelly  that 
an  absence  of  several  years  in  Europe  was  neces- 
sary for  his  recovery.  The  House  passed  a  resolu- 
tion of  censure  upon  Brooks,  who  immediately 
resigned,  but  was  unanimously  re-elected  by  his 
district.  Massachusetts  declined  to  choose  another 
Senator,  preferring  to  leave  Sumner's  empty  chair 
as  her  silent  protest  against  unpunished  violence. 

14.  The  Know  Nothing  National  Conven- 
tion met  at  Philadelphia,  February  22d,  1856.  It 
adopted  a  platform  which  declared  that  Americans 
must  rule  America,  and  that  naturalization  should 
be  granted  only  after  21  years'  residence,  and  con- 
demned the  repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compromise. 
The  Anti-Slavery  delegates  (one-fourth  of  all  the 
C(3nvention)  withdrew  because  of  a  refusal  to  en- 
dorse the    right  of   Congress   to    re-establish    the 


1/6  American  Politics.  [1856 

Missouri  Compromise  Line.  The  Convention  then 
nominated  Millard  Fillmore,  of  New  York,  and 
Andrew  Jackson  Donelson,  of  Tennessee.  These 
nominations  (but  not  the  platform)  were  accepted 
by  a  convention  of  delegates  from  the  remnants  of 
the  great  Whig  wreck,  held  at  Baltimore,  Septem- 
ber 17th.  The  Democratic  National  Conven- 
tion met  at  Cincinnati,  June  2d,  and  adopted  the 
strict  constructionist  platform  of  former  Conven- 
tions. It  added  to  it  a  condemnation  of  Know 
Nothingism,  and  an  approval  of  the  Kansas- 
Nebraska  Bill  and  the  substitution  of  Squatter 
Sovereignty  for  the  Compromise  of  1820.^  It  nom- 
inated James  Buchanan,  of  Pennsylvania,  and  John 
C.  Breckinridge,  of  Kentucky.  The  Republican 
National  Convention  met  at  Philadelphia,  June 
17th,  and  adopted  a  loose  constructionist  platform. 
It  declared  in  favor  of  Internal  Improvements  (in- 
cluding a  Pacific  Railway),  and  of  the  right  and 
duty  of  Congress  to  prohibit  Slavery  and  Polygamy 
in  the  Territories  and  admit  Kansas  as  a  Free 
State,  and  against  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri  Com- 
promise, the  general  policy  of  the  Administration, 
and  the  extension  of  Slavery.  Its  nominations 
were  John  C.  Fremont,  of  California,  and  William 
I..  Dayton,  of  New  Jersey. 


1  From  this  time  party  platforms  become  so  long  and  ambiguous  that 
only  the  most  succinct  abstract  can  be  given.  The  reader  is  referred  to 
Greeley's  Political  Text  Book  for  i860,  and  to  the  Tribune,  World,  and 
Herald  Almanacs  since  i860,  for  the  platforms  in  full. 


t857-]  Presidential  Election.  \Jf 

15.  The  Know  Nothings  and  Whigs  had  de- 
nounced both  the  Democrats  and  Republicans  as 
sectional,  or  "geographical"  parties.  But  Fill- 
more's supporters  had  no  remedy  to  offer  for  the 
troubles  caused  by  Slavery.  In  the  Presidential 
Election  in  November,  therefore,  they  carried  but 
one  State,  Maryland.  Democratic  electors  were 
chosen  by  the  remaining  fourteen  Slave  States,  and 
by  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Indiana,  Illinois,  and 
California,  giving  them  a  majority  of  all.  The 
remaining  eleven  Free  States  chose  Republican 
electors.^  No  candidate  had  a  majority  of  the 
popular  vote. 

16.  Congress  met  December  ist,  1856.^  The 
XXXIVth  Congress,    sudden  crystalization  of 

2d  Session.  the  various  Anti-Slavery 

elements  into  the  Republican  party  had  slightly 
altered  the  political  proportions  of  the  House. 
There  was  no  party  majority,  though  the  Republi- 
cans still  had  the  greatest  number  of  votes.  At 
this  Session  grants  of  public  lands  were  made  to 
various  Western  and  Southern  States  to  aid  the 
construction  of  new  railroads.  The  Tariff  of 
1857  ^^^  passed  by  both  Houses,  and  became  law. 
It^educed  duties  on  imports  to  a  rate  lower  than 
those  of  any  Tariff  since  1816. 


I  If  Pennsylvania  and  Illinois  had  chosen  Republican  electors  Fremont 
and  Dayton  would  have  been  elected. 

a  Senate,  40   Dem.,  15  Rep.,  5  Kn.  N.     House,  ic8  Rep.,  83  Dcm., 

4^  Kn.  N. 

12 


178  American  Politics.  [i^57 

17.  The  Kansas  troubles  took  up  much  of  the 
time  of  this  Session.  January  6th,  1857,  the  Free 
State  Legislature  again  attempted  to  meet  at 
Topeka,  and  was  again  dispersed  by  Federal  inter- 
ference. Its  presiding  officer  and  many  of  its 
members  were  arrested  by  a  United  States  deputy 
marshal.  The  Territorial,  or  Pro-Slavery,  Legisla- 
ture quarreled  with  Gov.  Geary,  who  resigned,  and 
Robert  J.  Walker,  of  Mississippi,  was  appointed  in 
his  stead.  A  resolution  was  passed  by  the  House 
declaring  the  Acts  of  the  Territorial  Legislature 
cruel,  oppressive,  illegal,  and  void.  It  was  tabled 
by  the  Senate. 

18.  In  February,  1857,  the  electoral  votes  were 
counted.  The  5  votes  of  Wisconsin  had  not  been 
cast  on  the  3d  of  December,  as  required  by  law, 
but  on  the  4th,  and  many  members  were  disposed 
to  debate  their  legality.  But  the  presiding  officer 
declared  all  debate  out  of  order,  and  announced  the 
votes,  including  those  of  Wisconsin,  to  be  174  for 
Buchanan  and  Breckinridge,  114  for  Fremont  and 
Dayton,  and  8  for  Fillmore  and  Donelson.  Bu- 
chanan and  Breckinridge  were  therefore  de- 
clared elected.  March  3d,  1857,  Congress  ad- 
journed, and  March  4th  Buchanan  and  Breckinridge 
were  sworn  into  office. 


CHAPTER   XIX. 

EIGHTEENTH   ADMINISTRATION,    1857 1861. 

James  Buchanan,  President.    John  C  Breckinridge,  Vice-President, 
XXXVth  and  XXXVIth  Congresses. 

Popular  vote  for  President  in  1857  ;  Deni.  1,838,169-, 
Rep.   1,341,264,  Kn.  N.  874,534. 

I.  Two  days  after  Buchanan's  Inauguration  the 
Supreme  Court  rendered  final  judgment  in  the 
Dred  Scott  Case.  It  had  been  decided  in 
1856,  but  it  had  been  thought  best  to  reserve  judg- 
ment until  the  excitement  of  the  Presidential  elec- 
tion should  subside.  This,  though  one  of  the  most 
important  cases  ever  decided  in  the  United  States, 
was  originally  a  case  of  simple  assault  and  battery. 
Dred  Scott  was  a  Missouri  slave.  His  owner  took 
him  in  1834  to  Illinois,  a  State  in  which  Slavery 
was  prohibited  by  statute,  allowed  him  to  marry 
and  live  there  until  1838,  and  then  took  him  to 
Minnesota,  a  Territory  in  which  Slavery  was  pro- 
hibited by  the  Act  of  Congress  of  1820,  known  as 
the  Missouri  Compromise.  Thence  his  owner  took 
him  back  to  Missouri.  Here  he  was  whipped  for 
some  offense,  and  brought  suit  for  damages,  claim- 
179 


l8o  American  Politics.  [1857 

ing  to  have  become  a  free  man  by  his  residence 
ill  Illinois  and  ISIinnesota.  The  owner's  demurrer 
denied  that  the  plaintiff  was  a  citizen,  or  could 
sue,  since  he  was  descended  from  slave  ancestors, 
and  never  had  been  set  free.  This  was  decided 
against  him  by  the  State  Circuit  Court  of  Missouri, 
and  judgment  given  in  favor  of  Dred  Scott.  By 
successive  appeals  the  case  finally  reached  the 
United  States  Supreme  Court. 

2.  The  Decision  of  the  Supreme  Court  star- 
tled the  Northern  States.  It  declared,  in  sub- 
stance, that  the  ancestors  of  negro  slaves  were  not 
regarded  as  persons  by  the  founders  of  the  gov- 
ernment, but  as  chattels,  as  things,  "  who  had  no 
rights  or  privileges  but  such  as  those  who  held  the 
the  power  and  the  government  might  choose  to 
grant  them  "  ;  that  Dred  Scott,  the  plaintiff  in 
error,  was  consequently  no  citizen  of  Missouri,  but 
a  thijigy  without  standing  in  Court,  and  his  case 
must  be  dismissed  for  want  of  jurisdiction  ;  and 
that  his  residence  in  Minnesota  could  avail  him 
nothing,  because  the  Act  of  Congress  of  1820, 
prohibiting  Slavery  north  of  the  parallel  of  36°  30', 
was  unconstitutional  and  void,  and  could  not  pre- 
vent a  slave-owner  from  settling  in  any  Territory 
with  all  his  property.  The  Court  further  took  oc- 
casion to  observe  that  Congress  had  no  more 
right  to  prohibit  the  carrying  of  slaves  into  any 
State  or  Territory  than  it  had  to  prohibit  the  car- 
rying thither  of  horses  or  any  other  property,  for 


1857.]  The  Case  of  Dred  Scott,  181 

slaves  were  property,  whose  secure  possession  was 
guaranteed  by  the  Constitution.' 

3.  The  Dred  Scott  decision  marks  the  last  at- 
tempt to  decide  the  contest  between  Slavery 
Extension  and  Slavery  Restriction  by  form 
of  law,  and  from  this  time  the  course  of  events 
tends,  with  increasing  rapidity,  to  a  settlement  by 
force.  The  first  Compromise  (in  1820)  had  pro- 
hibited Slavery  in  part  of  the  Territories,  leaving 
the  question  open  as  to  the  remainder.  The  next 
Compromise  (in  1850-1852)  had  opened  all  the 
Territories  to  Slavery,  if  established  by  Popular 
Sovereignty.  In  both  of  these  the  whole  people  had 
agreed.  But  the  Dred  Scott  decision,  in  its  logical 
consequences,  opened  all  the  Territories  and  all  the 
Free  States  to  at  least  a  temporary  establishment 
of  Slavery,  wherever  a  slave-owner  might  see  fit  to 
carry  his  slaves.  It  was  plain  that  this  would 
never  be  received  as  law  by  the  Free  States.  The 
only  practical  results  of  the  Dred  Scott  decision, 
therefore,  were  to  show  the  failure  of  the  Supreme 
Court  as  an  arbiter,  and  to  call  the  attention  of  the 
North  to  the  impracticable  demands  of  the  slave- 
owners. It  will  be  seen  that  the  Northern  (or 
Douglas)  Democrats,  who  had  supported  the  South 
heretofore,    refused   at    this    point    to    follow    the 


I  On  the  contrary,  the  dissenting  Justices  of  the  Court,  and  the  mass  of 
the  Northern  people,  considered  slaves  as  a  kind  of  property  whose  secure 
possession  was  guaranteed  only  by  the  State  laws  which  made  them  prop- 
erty.    Leaving  the  State  they  lost  the  guarantee  afforded  by  State  laws. 


1 82  America?t  Politics.  [1857 

Southern  lead  further,  and  chose  rather  to   divide 
the  party. 

4.  By  the  representation  given  by  the  Constitution 
to  three-fifths  of  the  slave  population,'  the  300,000 
slave-owners  had  grown  into  a  Slave  Power.  In 
1857  they  controlled  the  South,  the  South  con- 
trolled the  Democratic  party,  and  the  Democratic 
party  controlled  the  Union.  They  were  becoming 
extremely  doubtful  of  success  in  the  Kansas  strug- 
gle, where  they  were  evidently  overmatched  by 
the  superior  power,  resources,  and  enthusiasm  of 
the  Free  States.  They  had  not  received  the  ex- 
pected increase  of  Slave  States  and  United  States 
Senators  from  the  territories  wrested  from  Mexico.^ 
Should  they  fail  in  making  Kansas  a  Slave  State, 
they  saw  but  three  available  courses  to  pursue — to 
add  Cuba  to  the  Union  as  material  for  new  Slave 
States,  to  acquire  new  and  more  populous  territory 
south  of  Texas  for  the  same  purpose,  or  to  re-open 
the  African  slave  trade.  Failing  in  all  these,  they 
desired  a  secession,  or  separation  from  the  Free 
States,  and  the  formation  of  an    independent  gov- 

1  By  which  the  owner  of  too  slaves  was  equal  in  political  power  to  60 
free  citizens. 

2  By  forming  new  Southern  States  to  balance  new  Northern  States,  the 
two  sections  were  carefully  kept  in  equilibrium  until  1845,  when  Texas 
was  admitted,  (See  Appendices  C  and  F).  After  that  time  five  new  North- 
ern States  were  admitted,  and  others  were  evidently  almost  ready  for  ap- 
plication, while  no  new  Southern  States  could  be  formed  to  counterbalance 
them.  The  consequent  impossibility  of  maintaining  a  future  equality  in 
the  Senate  seems  to  have  been  the  primary  cause  of  alarm  in  the  South. 
For  the  present  proportion  in  the  Senate  see  Appendix  G. 


I857-J  The  O St  end  Manifesto.  183 

ernment,  in  which  Slavery  would  be  secured  from 
all  attacks  or  restrictions. 

5.  The  Purchase  of  Cuba  had  been  vainly  at- 
tempted at  various  times  since  the  inauguration  of 
President  Polk,  and  a  growing  disposition  was  ap- 
parent ia  the  South  to  take  it  from  Spain  by  force. 
In  1853,  therefore,  England  and  France  asked  the 
United  States  to  join  in  a  tripartite  agreement  to 
guarantee  Cuba  to  Spain  forever.  The  proposition 
was  rejected.  In  1854  the  American  Ministers  to 
England,  France,  and  Spain,  meeting  in  the  Bel- 
gian town  of  Osterid,  had  published  the  so  called 
Ostend  Manifesto,  which  declared  that  there  was 
no  hope  of  safety  or  repose  for  the  United  States 
without  the  acquisition  of  Cuba.  But,  so  long  as 
England,  France,  and  Spain  were  united  in  oppos- 
ing it,  there  was  little  hope  for  the  South  in  the 
direction  of  Cuba. 

6.  In  185 1  began  the  Era  of  Filibustering 
Expeditions  against  Cuba  and  Central  America, 
with  the  ultimate  design  of  adding  slave  territory 
to  the  United  States.  Lopez,  a  Cuban,  with  500 
men,  sailed  from  New  Orleans  to  conquer  Cuba. 
He  was  defeated  and  executed,  and  his  men  im- 
prisoned. In  1855  William  Walker,  of  Tennessee, 
sailed  from  New  Orleans  to  conquer  Central 
America.  He  was  repeatedly  defeated,  but  re- 
peatedly renewed  his  expeditions  until  i860,  when 
he  was  captured  by  the  English,  tried  and  shot  by 
the  Honduras  authorities.     This  ended  filibustering. 


184  American  Politics.  [1857 

7.  The  re-opening  of  the  African  Slave  Trade 

was  aheady  seriously  demanded  by  many  slave- 
owners. They  believed  that  the  South  had  been 
overpowered  in  the  Kansas  struggle  because  of 
her  inability  to  pour  slaves  into  the  new  Territory 
at  once.  There  seemed  a  strong  probability  that 
Southern  leaders  would  endeavor  to  obtain  from 
the  next  Democratic  Convention  a  declaration  in 
favor  of  renewing  the  slave  trade  with  Africa. 

8.  Congress  met  December  7th,  1857,  with  a  Dem- 
XXXVth  Congress,     ocratic  majority  in  both 

1st  Session.  branches.'     In  the  House 

James  L,J34^,  of  South  Carolina,  a  Democrat,  was 
chosen  Speaker.  The  debates  of  this  Session 
were  mainly  upon  the  last  scene  in  the  Kansas 
struggle.  Governor  Walker  had  succeeded  in  per- 
suading the  Free  State  settlers  to  recognize  the 
Territorial  Legislature  so  far  as  to  take  part  in  the 
election  which  it  had  ordered.  The  result  gave 
them  control  of  the  Legislature.  But  a  previously 
elected  Pro-Slavery  Convention,  sitting  at  Lecomp- 
ton,  went  on  to  form  a  State  Constitution.  This 
was  to  be  submitted  to  the  people,  but  only  votes 
"  For  the  Constitution  with  Slavery,"  or  *■'  For  the 
Constitution  without  Slavery,"  were  to  be  received. 
Not  being  allowed  in  either  event  to  vote  against 
the  Constitution,  the  Free  State  settlers  refused  to 
vote  at  all,  and  the  Lecompton  Constitution 

I  Senate,  39  Dem.,  20  Rep.,   5  Kn.   N.     House  131  Dem.,   92  Rep.,  i* 

Kn.  N. 


1857-]       T^^^  Lccompton  Constitution.  185 

with  Slavery  received  6000  majority.  The  new 
Territorial  Legislature,  however,  ordered  an  elec- 
tion at  which  the  people  could  vote  for  or  against 
the  Lecompton  Constitution,  and  a  majority  of 
10,000  was  cast  against  it.* 

9.  On  the  first  day  of  the  Session  the  Republi- 
can Congressmen  united  in  publishing  a  protest 
against  any  effort  to  uiake  Kansas  a  Slave  State 
against  the  wish  of  her  people.  The  President's 
Message  argued  in  favor  of  receiving  Kansas  as 
a  State  under  the  Lecompton  Constitution  with 
Slavery,  on  the  ground  that  the  delegates  had 
been  chosen  to  form  a  State  Constitution,  and 
were  not  obligated  to  submit  it  to  the  people  at  all. 
This  view  was  supported  by  the  Southern  members 
of  Congress,  and  opposed  by  the  Republicans  and 
by  a  part  of  the  Democrats,  headed  by  Senator 
Douglas,  of  Illinois.^  The  Senate  passed  a  bill  ad- 
mitting Kansas  as  a  State,  under  the  Lecompton 
Constitution.  The  House  passed  the  bill,  with  the 
proviso  that  the  Constitution  should  again  be  sub- 
mitted to  a  popular  vote.  The  Senate  rejected 
the  proviso.  A  conference  committee  recom- 
mended  a  compromise  according  to  which  a  substi- 


1  But  this  vote  was  considered  worthless  by  the  advocates  of  the  I,e- 
compton  Constitution,  on  the  ground  that  the  Territorial  Legislature  had 
no  power  to  order  it. 

2  "  It  is  not  satisfactory  to  me  to  have  the  President  say,  in  his  Message, 
that  that  Constitution  is  an  admirable  one.  That  is  none  of  my  business, 
and  none  of  yours.  You  have  no  right  to  force  an  unexceptionable  Consti- 
tution upon  the  people." — {Douglas^  Speech  in  Senate.) 


1 86  American  Politics.  [1858 

tute  for  the  land  ordinance  of  the  Lecompton  Con- 
stitution was  to  be  submitted  to  popular  vote.  In 
this  form  the  bitl  was  passed  by  both  Houses,  and 
became  law.  An  attempt  was  made  without  suc- 
cess to  appropriate  public  lands  to  the  States  for 
educational  purposes.  Congress  adjourned  June 
ist,  1858. 

10.  Minnesota  had  become  a  State  of  the 
Union  May  nth,  1858.  In  the  case  of  Kansas 
the  land  ordinance  proposed  by  Congress  was 
rejected  by  10,000  majority,  and  a  final  disposition 
of  the  Lecompton  Constitution  was  thus  made. 
Kansas,  therefore,  still  remained  a  Territory.  In 
1859,  at  an  election  called  by  the  Territorial  Legis- 
lature, the  people  decided  in  favor  of  another  Con- 
vention to  form  a  State  Constitution.  This  body 
met  at  Wyandot,  in  July,  1859,  and  adopted  a  State 
Constitution  prohibiting  Slavery.  The  Wyandot 
Constitution  was  submitted  to  the  people  and  re- 
ceived a  majority  of  4000  in  its  favor. 

11.  Congress  met  December  6th,  1858.'  Party 
XXXVth  Congress,    contest    at    this    Session 

2d  Session.  centred  upon  the  Home- 

stead Bill,  which  gave  heads  of  families  the  right 
to  purchase  160  acres  of  public  lands  at  $1.25  per 
acre.     It  was  passed  by  the  House,  but  postponed 


I  Party  strength  was  unchanged  except  that  ii  members  of  the  House 
now  classed  as  Anti-Lecompton  Democrats,  and  ii6  Democrats  supported 
the  Administration. 


1 859-]        The  Harper  s  Ferry  Rising.  187 

by  the  Senate.  The  bill  to  appropriate  public 
lands  for  educational  purposes  was  passed,  but 
vetoed  by  the  President.  Congress  adjourned 
March  3rd,  1859.  February  14th,  1859,  Oregon 
had  become  a  State  of  the  Union. 

12.  In  1859  some  of  the  extreme  Abolitionists 
determined  to  try  the  Southern  policy  of  filibuster- 
ing. John  Brown,  a  native  of  Connecticut,'  had 
gone  to  Kansas  in  1855,  and  settled  in  the  town  of 
Ossawattomie.  Here  he  became  so  noted  as  a 
leader  in  carrying  the  war  into  the  Pro-slavery 
district  that  rewards  for  his  arrest  were  offered  by 
the  Governor  and  the  President.  He  thereupon 
left  Kansas,  and  in  July,  1859,  settled  at  Harper's 
Ferry,  Va.,  with  the  desperate  intention  of  begin- 
ning a  general  insurrection  of  the  slave  race.  His 
family  and  some  of  his  Kansas  associates  were  with 
him.  October  17th,  having  matured  their  plans 
and  prepared  arms,  they  seized  the  town  of  Har- 
per's Ferry,  and  the  United  States  Arsenal,  with 
all  the  arms  contained  in  it.  The  news  created  a 
wild  alarm  in  the  South.  Virginia  and  Maryland 
militia  were  hurried  to  Harper's  Ferry.  After  a 
spirited  defense,  most  of  Brown's  associates  were 
shot,  and  their  wounded  leader  and  a  few  others 
were  taken  prisoners,  tried,  and  hanged  by  the 
State  of  Virginia.  John  Brown's  execution  took 
place  December  2d,  1859. 

I  He  had  for  some  time  lived  in  "  John  Brown's  Tract"  in  New  York. 


1 88  American  Politics.  [i860 

13.  Congress  met  December  5th,  1859,'   with  a 
XXXVIth  Congress,     Democratic  majority  in 

1st  Session.  the    Senate.        In      the 

House  the  Repubhcan  vote  was  the  largest,  but 
there  was  no  party  majority.  Balloting  for  a 
Speaker  was  continued  for  eight  weeks,  inter- 
rupted by  angry  debates  upon  a  recently  published 
Abolitionist'^  book  called  "  The  Impending  Crisis 
in  the  South,"  and  upon  the  Harper's  Ferry  insur- 
rection. February  1st,  i860,  William  Pennington, 
of  New  Jersey,  a  Republican,  was  chosen  Speaker. 
In  the  Senate  resolutions  were  at  once  introduced 
affirming,  in  substance,  that  Congress  and  Terri- 
torial Legislatures  had  no  power  to  prohibit  Slavery 
in  the  Territories.  'J'hey  were  debated,  at  inter- 
vals, for  nearly  four  months,  and  then  passed  by  a 
party  vote. 

14.  A  most  unpleasant  feature  of  this  Session 
was  the  so-called  Covode  Investigation  by  a 
committee  of  the  House.  Two  members  of  the 
House"  had  declared  in  debate  that  they  had  been 
offered  inducements  by  the  Administration  to  vote 
for  the  Lecompton  Bill,  and  a  committee  of  five 
was  appointed,  on  motion  of  Covode,  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, to  investigate  the  charge.  The  President 
protested     against     the     investigation.     After     a 

1  Senate,  38  Dem.,  25  Rep.,  2  Kn.  N.     House.  109   Rep.,   86  Dem.,    ij 
Anti-Lecompton  Dem.,  22  Kn.  N. 

2  The  term  "  Abolitionist  "  was  then  one  of  reproach.     It  is  hardly  nec- 
essary to  say  that  it  is  not  so  used  in  the  text, 

3  Hickman  and  G.  B.  Adrain. 


l86o.]  TJu  Homestead  Bill.  189 

tedious  investigation  of  three  months  the  Republi- 
can majority  reported  that  the  Administration  had 
been  guilty  of  bribing  members  of  Congress  and 
editors  of  newspapers  to  favor  the  Lecompton  Bill. 
The  Democratic  minority  defended  and  exonerated 
the  President.  No  further  action  was  taken  in  the 
rr.atter. 

15.  The  Homestead  Bill,  which  was  passed 
at  the  last  Session,  was  again  passed  by  the  House. 
The  Senate  passed  a  substitute,  to  which  the 
House  agreed,  giving  public  lands  to  actual  settlers 
at  25  cents  per  acre.  It  was  vetoed  by  the  Presi- 
dent on  the  ground  that  it  was  unjust  to  the  older 
States  in  really  giving  away  lands  to  the  newer 
States.*  The  application  of  Kansas  for  admission 
?.s  a  State  under  the  Wyandot  Constitution^  was 
approved  by  the  House,  but  rejected  by  the  Senate. 
Consequently  Kansas  still  remained  a  Territory. 
Congress  adjourned  June  i8th,  i860. 

16.  The  Democratic  National  Convention 
met  at  Charleston,  S.  C,  April  23d,  i860.  The 
proceedings  were  stormy,  and  resulted  in  the  split- 
ting of  the  Convention  and  the  party  into  two  dis- 
tinct fragments,  through  the  refusal  of  the  North- 
ern (or  Douglas)   Democrats  to  agree  to  the  de- 

r  1  he  Senate  substitute  seems  to  have  been  purposely  drawn  so  as  to 
provoke  a  veto,  if  possible.  The  Southern  opposition  to  a  Homestead 
Bill  seems  to  have  come  from  the  apprehension  that  it  would  increase  im- 
migration in  the  North-West,  and  thus  increase  the  Free  State  representa 
tion  in  the  Senate. 

a  See  page  i8d. 


190  Americaft  Politics.  [i860 

mands  of  the  Southern  wing.  Both  factions  re^ 
affirmed  the  strict  constructionist  platforms  of  past 
Conventions,  and  declared  for  a  Pacific  Railway 
and  for  the  acquisition  of  Cuba.  The  Southern 
delegates  offered  additional  resolutions  affirming 
the  doctrine  of  the  Dred  Scott  decision,  that  neither 
Congress  nor  the  Territorial  Legislatures  had  a 
right  to  prohibit  Slavery  in  the  Territories.  The 
Douglas  Democrats,  refusing  to  abandon  Popular 
Sovereignty  openly,  offered  a  resolution  that  the 
party  would  abide  by  the  decisions  of  the  Supreme 
Court.  The  Convention  adopted  the  Douglas 
platform,  whereupon  the  delegations  from  many 
Southern  States  successively  protested  and  with- 
drew. The  Convention  then  proceeded  to  ballot 
fifty-seven  times  for  candidates  without  a  choice, 
and  adjourned  to  meet  again  at  Baltimore,  June 
1 8th.  When  it  re-assembled  several  new  Douglas 
delegations  were  admitted,  whereupon  the  few  re- 
maining Soutliern  delegates  also  withdrew.  The 
Convention  then  nominated  Stephen  A.  Douglas, 
of  Illinois,  and  Herschel  V.  Johnson,  of  Georgia. 
17.  The  Seceding"  Delegates  had  at  once  or- 
ganized a  new  Convention  in  Charleston,  adopted 
their  platform,  and  adjourned  to  meet  again  in 
Richmond,  Va.,  June  nth.  Here  they  adjourned 
again,  re-assembled  at  Baltimore,  June  28th,  and  . 
nominated  John  C.  Breckinridge,  of  Kentucky, 
and  Joseph  Lane,  of  Oregon.  The  former  Ameri- 
can (or  Know  Nothing)   party,  now  calling  itself 


i86o.]  National  Conventions,  I9I 

^e  Constitutional  Union  Party,  held  its  Na- 
tional Convention  at  Baltimore,  May  19th,  and 
adopted  an  evasive  platforna,  declaring  as  its  polit- 
ical principles  "  The  Constitution  of  the  country, 
the  Union  of  the  States,  and  the  enforcement  of 
the  laws."  It  nominated  John  Bell,  of  Tennessee, 
and  Edward  Everett  of  Massachusetts.  The 
Republican  National  Convention  met  at  Chi- 
cago, May  i6th,  and  adopted  a  loose  construction- 
ist platform.  This  outspoken  document  quoted 
the  Declaration  of  Independence  as  to  the  freedom 
and  equality  of  all  men  ;  denounced  Democratic 
threats  of  disunion,  and  Democratic  administration 
in  Kansas  and  at  Washington  ;  declared  that  free- 
dom was  the  normal  condition  of  the  Territories, 
which  Congress  was  bound  to  preserve  and  defend  ; 
and  pronounced  in  favor  of  Protection,  Internal 
Improvements,  the  Homestead  Bill,  and  a  Pacific 
Railway.  It  nominated  Abraham  Lincoln,  of  Illi- 
nois, and  Hannibal  Hamlin,  of  Maine. 

18.  Four  Parties  were  now  in  the  field.  The 
Bell  platform  meant  simply  to  evade  the  question 
of  Slavery  altogether.  The  Lincoln  platform 
avowed  a  purpose  to  exclude  Slavery  from  the 
Territories  at  any  cost.  The  Breckinridge  plat- 
form avowed  a  purpose  to  carry  Slavery  into  the 
Territories  at  any  cost.  The  Douglas  platform 
aimed  to  throw  the  responsibility  of  a  decision  of 
the  Slavery  question  upon  the  Supreme  Court,  or 
upon  the  people  of  the  Territories,  or  anywhere, 


192  American  Politics,  [i860 

in  short,  except  upon  the  Democratic  party.  Th# 
discordant  efforts  of  the  three  parties  opposed  to 
the  Republicans  only  made  Lincoln's  election  more 
certain,  and  at  the  Presidential  Election  in 
November  Republican  electors  were  cliosen  by 
every  Free  State  but  one,'  giving  them  a  majority 
of  all  the  electoral  votes.  No  candidate  had  a 
majority  of  the  popular  vote.  Breckinridge  elec- 
tors were  chosen  by  most  of  the  Southern  States. 

19.  The  South  Carolina  Legislature,  which  had 
met  to  choose  electors,"  remained  in  session  until 
Lincoln's  election  was  assured.  It  then  called  a 
State  Convention  and  adjourned.  The  South  Caro- 
lina Senators  and  office-holders  in  the  Federal 
service  at  once  resigned.  December  20th  the  Con- 
vention unanimously  passed  an  Ordinance  of 
Secession,  entitled  "An  Ordinance  to  dissolve 
the  union  between  the  State  of  South  Carolina  and 
other  States  united  with  her  in  the  compact  entitled 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  of  America." 
Copies  of  this  Ordinance  were  sent  to  the  other 
Slave  States,  and  commissioners  appointed  to  treat 
for  the  division  of  national  property  and  of  the 
public  debt. 

20.  This  bold  step  of  the  little  State  of  South 
Carolina  was  relied  upon,  and  with  good  reason,  by 
the  disunionists  of  the  South  to  "  fire  the  Southern 
heart,"  and  urge  on  Secession  by  other  States. 

I  New  Jersey,  where  four  Lincoln  and  three  Douglas  electors  were  Uiosea 
a  See  page  log. 


i86i.]  Secession, — Compromise,  193 

Under  the  spur  of  an  unwillingness  to  abandon 
their  smaller  sister,  other  Slave  States  rapidly  came 
abreast  of  her.  Before  the  end  of  January,  1861, 
Georgia,  Alabama,  Florida,  Mississippi,  Louisiana, 
and  Texas  had  passed  Ordinances  of  Secession. 
Tennessee,  North  Carolina,  Arkansas,  and  the  Bor- 
der States  still  refused  to  join  their  more  Southern 
neighbors. 

21.  Congress  met  December  3d,  i860.  The 
XXXVIth     Congress,     President's     Mes- 

26.  Session.  sage   stated  his  ina- 

bility to  find  judges  or  officers  in  the  South  to  issue 
or  execute  process  against  offenders,  and  his  own 
opinion,  and  that  of  the  Attorney-General,  that 
under  such  circumstances  it  was  impossible  legally 
to  compel  a  State's  obedience.  The  Message  ar- 
gued against  the  right  of  Secession  much  as  did 
Jackson's  Nullification  Proclamation  in  1832.  But 
the  latter  closed  with  a  warning,  to  which  the 
known  character  of  its  author  added  convincing 
force,  that  blood  would  flow  if  the  laws  were  resisted. 
President  Buchanan's  Message,  on  the  contrary, 
summed  up  the  whole  matter  by  saying,  in  effect, 
that  he  knew  not  what  to  do,  for  he  did  not  believe 
that  Congress  could  constitutionally  make  war 
upon  a  State. 

22.  It  would  be  wearisome  to  detail  the  long  list 
of  propositions  for  compromise  and  conciliation 
with  which  this  Session  was  chiefly  occupied.  The 
one  which  seemed  most  likely  to  succeed  was  ths 

13 


194  American  Politics.  [1861 

Crittenden  Compromise.'  Its  main  provisions 
were  that  Slavery  should  be  prohibited  north  of  the 
parallel  of  36"  30',  and  recognized  and  never  inter- 
fered with  by  Congress  south  of  that  line,  and  that 
the  Federal  Government  should  pay  for  slaves  res- 
cued from  officers  after  arrest.  These  provisions 
were  to  be  made  a  part  of  the  Constitution,  and 
were  never  to  be  altered  or  amended  while  the 
Union  existed.  This  measure  failed  to  receive  the 
Republican  vote,  without  which  the  Southern  mem- 
bers refused  to  entertain  it. 

23.  February  4th,  1861,  a  Peace  Congress, 
composed  of  delegates  from  13  Free  and  7  Border 
States,  met  at  Washington  at  the  request  of  the 
Virginia  Legislature.  It  adopted  and  reported  to 
Congress  a  number  of  resolutions  making  various 
concessions  to  Southern  demands.  Congress  threw 
all  these  aside,  and  passed,  as  a  substitute,  an 
Amendment  to  the  Constitution  proposed  by  Senator 
Douglas,  which  forbade  Congress  ever  to  interfere 
with  Slavery  in  the  States.^ 

24.  While  these  measures  were  being  uselessly 
debated,  the  work  of  Secession  was  pressed  with 
energy  and  ability.  Time  which  should  have  been 
spent  in  making  the  Federal  Government  ready  to 
assert  its  supremacy  was  wasted  in  dallying  with 
theoretical  cures  for  incurable  evils.  Even  during 
the  debates  the  occasional  farewells  and  departures 

X  So  called  from  its  proposer,  John  J.  Crittenden,  of  Kentucky. 

2  This  Amendment  was  never  adopted  by  the  necessary  number  of  States. 


1 86 1.]  The  Confederate  States,  195 

of  Southern  Senators  and  Representatives  would 
announce  that  another  State  had  seceded  without 
waiting  to  be  conciliated.  In  February,  186 r,  a 
Convention  of  delegates  from  the  seceding  States 
met  at  Montgomery,  Ala.,  and  formed  a  govern- 
ment called  the  Confederate  States  of  Amer- 
ica. Its  organization  was  a  tribute  to  the  excel- 
lence of  the  Constitution  of  1787,  for  it  mainly 
copied  that  instrument,  except  that  it  recognized 
Slavery  and  forbade  Protective  Tariffs.  Jefferson 
Davis,  of  Mississippi,  and  Alexander  H.  Stephens, 
of  Georgia,  were  chosen  President  and  Vice-Presi- 
dent. A  Cabinet  was  at  once  appointed,  and 
arrangements  were  hastily  made  to  organize  an 
army,  navy,  and  treasury.  United  States  forts, 
arsenals,  and  arms  were  seized,  and  batteries  were 
prepared  for  the  reduction  of  the  forts  which 
resisted,  particularly  Fort  Sumter,  in  Charleston 
Harbor. 

25.  As  soon  as  a  sufficient  number  of  Southern 
members  of  Congress  had  withdrawn  to  give  the 
Republicans  a  majority  in  both  Houses,  Kansas 
was  admitted  as  a  State  under  the  Wyandot  Free 
State  Constitution,  and  the  Territories  of  Ne- 
vada, Colorado,  and  Dakota  were  organized 
without  mention  of  Slavery,  thus  giving  the  South 
the  benefit  of  the  Dred  Scott  decision  therein.  The 
so-called  Morrill  Tariff  of  1861  was  also  passed 
by  both  Houses  and  became  law.  Its  great  object 
was  the  protection  of  manufactures,  revenue  being 


196  American  Politics.  [186 1 

a  secondary  consideration.'  In  February,  i86i,the 
electoral  votes  were  counted,  and  were  found  to  be 
for  Lincoln  and  Hamlin  180,  for  Breckinridge  and 
Lane  72,  for  Bell  and  Everett  39,  and  for  Douglas 
and  Johnson  12.  Lincoln  and  Hamlin  were 
therefore  declared  elected.  After  authorizing  a 
loan  and  an  issue  of  Treasury  notes,  this  dismal 
Session  of  Congress  adjourned  March  3d,  1861, 
and  March  4th  Lincoln  and  Hamlin  were  sworn 
into  office. 


I  From  this  time  the  subject  of  Internal  Improvements  drops  out  of 
politics.  Both  parties  appear  to  recognize  the  right  of  Congress  to  appro- 
piiate  money  for  isolated  public  improvements,  and  the  project  of  a  oon- 
nected  system  of  canals,  etc.,  has  not  yet  been  formally  revived. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

NINETEENTH    ADMINISTRATION,    1861-1S65. 

A.braham  Lincoln,  President.  Hannibal  Hamlin,  Vice-President. 

XXXVIIth  and  XXXVIlIth  Congresses. 

Popular  vote  for  President  ill  \%(io  :  Rep.  1,866,352, 
Const.  Union  589,581,  Dein.  2,220,920  {^Douglas 
1,375.157.  Breckinridge  845,763). 

I.  When  the  New  Administration  entered 
office  affairs  seemed  almost  desperate.  Seven 
States  had  already  revolted,  and  others  were  noto- 
riously ready  to  join  them  upon  the  first  attempt  to 
exert  the  National  authority.  Part  of  the  Federal 
army  had  surrendered,  and  most  of  the  remainder 
were  beleaguered  in  isolated  forts.  The  Federal 
ships  of  war  had  generally  been  sent  to  distant  seas. 
Many  of  the  experienced  officers  of  the  army  and 
navy  had  taken  service  under  the  rebellious  Con- 
federacy. A  large  part  of  the  Federal  munitions  of 
war,  having  been  previously  transferred  to  Southern 
arsenals,  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  insurgents. 
The  Federal  Treasury,  by  defalcation  and  pecula- 
tion, was  nearly  bankrupt.  The  public  servants, 
like  those  of  a  dying  king,  seemed  anxious  only  to 
secure  as  much  plunder  as  possible  and  decamp. 
In  the  South  the   numbers   of  those  who  desired 

107 


198  American  Politics,  [1861 

a  permanent  Southern  Confederacy  were  being 
increased  daily  by  accessions  from  those  who  had 
at  first  intended  only  to  remain  out  of  the  Union  long 
enough  to  secure  guarantees  for  the  future  safety 
of  Slavery.  And  yet  men  of  all  parties  in  the  North, 
blind  to  the  certainty  of  approaching  war,  were 
still  busied  with  plans  to  conciliate  the  revolted 
States  by  any  concession  except  that  of  nationaliz- 
ing Slavery. 

2.  The  announced  purpose  of  the  President  to 
re-supply  Fort  Sumter  precipitated  an  attack 
upon  it  by  the  rebel  forces  around  it.  After  a 
bombardment  of  thirty  hours,  the  American  flag,  for 
the  first  time  in  its  history,  was  lowered  under  the 
fire  of  insurgent  citizens,  and  the  fort  surrendered, 
April  14th,  1 86 1.  The  news  woke  the  North  as  if 
from  a  trance.  The  mass  of  the  Democracy  were 
even  more  furious  than  the  Republicans.  The 
Southern  States  were  no  longer  "  erring  sisters,"  to 
be  gently  conciliated.  The  whole  North  clamored 
for  arms,  for  leaders,  for  legal  authorization  to  bring 
the  South  back  to  law,  order,  and  obedience,  at  the 
point  of  the  bayonet. 

3.  Civil  War  had  fairly  begun.  For  the  first 
time  the  government,  in  time  of  war,  was  under 
the  control  of  a  loose  constructionist  party,  for  the 
war  Democrats  soon  became  absorbed  into  the 
Republican  organization,  and  the  resulting  fusion 
frequently  took  the  name  of  the  Union  Party. 
The  experiment  was  hazardous.     In  previous  wars 


1 86 1.]  Civil  War,  199 

the  Democratic  party,  though  trammeled  by  its 
strict  constructionist  theories,  had  been  driven  to 
strain  the  Constitution  to  conform  to  the  necessities 
of  the  hour.  But  the  sobering  responsibilities  of 
power,  and  the  active  (though  often  ill-timed) 
opposition  of  the  Peace  Democrats,  checked  the 
loose  constructionist  theories  of  the  dominant  party, 
and  brought  the  Constitution  through  a  dreadful 
struggle  of  four  years  with  less  change  than  might 
have  been  anticipated. 

4.  The  President  at  once  called  for  75,000  volun- 
teers, and  summoned  an  Extra  Session  of  Congress. 
Through  the  spring  of  1861  the  State  governments 
of  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  Tennessee,  and  Ark- 
ansas, which  had  hitherto  refused  to  secede,  fol- 
lowed the  same  general  line  of  action.  Military 
Leagues  were  made  with  the  Confederacy  ;  Con- 
federate troops  were  then  allowed  to  swarm  over 
their  territory  ;  and  finally,  by  their  aid  and  coun- 
tenance. Ordinances  of  Secession  were  passed. 
Efforts  to  carry  out  this  plan  in  Delaware,  Mary- 
land, Kentucky,  and  Missouri,  were  not  successful. 
By  the  time  set  for  the  meeting  of  Congress  the 
line  had  been  distinctly  drawn,  and  the  rebellion 
was  general  in  the  States  of  Virginia,  NortTi  Caro- 
lina, South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Florida,  Alabama, 
Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Texas,  Arkansas,  and  Ten- 
nessee.' 

I  About  40  Counties  of  Western  Virginia  refused   to  be  bound   by  the 
action  of  the  rest  of  the  State,  and   formed  a  Legislature  which  claimed  to 


200  American  Politics,  [1861 

5.  Congress  met  July  4th,  1861,  with  a  Republi- 
XXXVIIth  Congress,  can  majority  in  both 
Extra  Session.  branches.*  Only  the 
Free  States  and  the  Border  States  were  represented. 
In  the  House  Galusha  A.  Grow,  of  Pennsylvania,  a 
Republican,  was  chosen  Speaker.  In  the  Senate 
three  Senators,  who  had  absented  themselves  to 
take  part  in  the  rebellion,  were  expelled.  The 
House  voted  to  consider  at  this  Session  only  bills 
concerning  the  military,  naval,  and  financial  opera- 
tions of  the  Government.  The  energy  of  the  pro- 
ceedings was  only  stimulated  by  the  disastrous 
battle  of  Bull  Run,  July  21st.  Bills  were  passed 
by  both  Houses  to  close  the  Southern  ports  against 
commerce,  to  authorize  a  loan,  to  appropriate  money 
for  the  army  and  navy,  to  call  out  500,000  volun- 
teers, to  define  and  punish  conspiracy  against  the 
United  States,  and  to  confiscate  all  private  prop- 
erty, including  slaves,  employed  against  the  United 
States.  The  Tariff  Act  of  August  5th,  1861,  again 
increased  the  duties  on  imports.  The  House,  by  a 
heavy  majority  (12 1-5),  pledged  itself  to  vote  any 
amount  of  money  and  any  number  of  men  necessary 
to  put  down  the  rebellion.  Propositions  looking 
to  negotiations  for  peace   were  constantly  offered 

be  the  real  Legislature  of  Virginia.  This  body  gave  the  assent  required 
by  the  Constitution  to  the  formation  of  a  new  State,  at  first  called  Kanawha, 
afterwards  West  Virginia.  Congress  recognized  their  right  to  do  so,  and 
admitted  the  new  State  in  1862. 

1  Senate,   Rep.   31,  Dem.    11,  Union   5.     House,   Rep.  106,   Dem.   42, 
Union  28. 


1 86 1.]  War  Measures.  201 

by  extreme  Democrats,  and  as  constantly  voted 
down  by  heavy  majorities  on  the  ground  that  nego- 
tiation with  armed  rebelHon  was  unconstitutional. 
Congress  adjourned  August  6th,  1861. 

6.  From  the  beginning  of  the  war  the  Federal 
Government  was  embarrassed  by  the  question  of 
Fugitive  Slaves.  August  31st  General  John  C. 
Fremont  had  declared  the  slaves  of  Missouri  rebels 
free  men,  but  this  was  overruled  and  annulled  by 
the  President.  In  Virginia  General  Benjamin  F. 
Butler  had  announced  that  slaves  were  "  contra- 
band of  war,"  and  consequently  liable  to  confisca- 
tion by  military  law.  Elsewhere  in  the  Federal 
lines  slave-owners,  on  proving  property,  were  gen- 
erally given  possession  of  their  fugitive  slaves. 
The  disposition  of  the  North  was  to  put  down  the 
rebellion,  without  any  interference  with  the  Southern 
<'  institution  "  of  Slavery.  But  it  was  plain  that 
any  long  continuance  of  the  rebellion  would  inevi- 
tably rouse  the  temper  of  the  Free  States,  and  pro- 
voke hostility  to  Slavery  itself. 

7.  Congress  met  December  2d,  186 1.  Slavery 
XXXVIIth  Congress,    and    The   Prosecu- 

ist     Session.  tion    of    the   War 

occupied  the  Session.  Bills  were  passed  by  both 
Houses  to  punish  treason,  to  free  slaves  employed 
against  the  Government,  to  provide  for  the  con- 
struction of  a  Pacific  Railway  and  Telegraph,  and 
to  donate  public  lands  to  the  various  States  for 
the  benefit  of  Agricultural  Colleges.     The  army  was 


202  American  Politics.  [1S63 

forbidden  to  surrender  fugitive  slaves.  The  Home- 
stead Bill '  was  brought  up  again  and  passed. 
Provision  was  made  for  the  United  States  represen- 
tation by  consuls  in  the  negro  states  of  Hayti 
and  Liberia.  A  stringent  form  of  oath^  was  pre- 
scribed, to  be  taken  by  United  States  officials  and 
beneficiaries.  The  Act  of  February  25th,  1862, 
provided  for  a  legal-tender  National  Paper  Cur- 
rency (commonly  called  ''  greenbacks  ").  It  more 
than  took  the  place  of  the  favorite  measure  of  the 
Federalists  and  Whigs,  a  National  Bank.  Most 
of  these  measures  were  passed  by  party  votes. 
The  Tariff  Act  of  December  24th,  1861,  again 
increased  the  duties  on  imports.  Congress  ad- 
journed July  17th,  1862. 

8.  During  the  summer  of  1862  the  President  at 
last  determined  to  use  Slavery  itself  as  a  means 
either  of  coercion  or  of  punishment.  By  procla- 
mation, therefore,  September  2 2d,  1862,  he  warned 
the  revolting  States,  that  unless  they  should  return 
to  their  allegiance  by  January  ist,  1863,  he  would, 
as  an  act  of  militauy  necessity,  declare  the  slaves  in 
those  States  to  be  free  men.  As  this  Proclamation 
had  no  effect,  he  issued  his  Emancipation  Proc- 
lamation, January  ist,  1863,  in  the  terms  pre- 
viously announced.^     The  two   years  of  civil  war 

1  See  page  186. 

2  Commonly  called  the  "  Iron  Clad  Oath." 

3  It  did  not  apply  to  the  slaves  in  States  not  in  rebellion,  nor  to  the  por- 
tions of  rebellious  States  then  conquered.  For  these  an  Amendment  to 
the  Constitution  was  necessary  (see  p.  206), 


1863.]  Emancipation.  203 

had  so  developed  anti-slavery  feeling  in  the  North 
that  the  Emancipation  Proclamation  excited  no 
such  opposition  as  would  have  met  it  if  proposed  in 
1 86 1.  Nevertheless,  it  caused  a  temporary  falling 
off  in  the  Republican  vote. 

9.  Congress  met  December  ist,  1862.  Under  the 
XXXVI I th  Congress,    pressure   of   Military 

2d  Session.  Necessity  the  Acts  of 

this  Session  were  based  upon  a  looser  construction 
of  the  Constitution  than  those  of  the  previous  Ses- 
sion. An  Act  was  passed  to  legitimate  the  suspen- 
sion of  the  writ  of  Habeas  Corpus.  A  Draft  or 
Conscription  Act,  more  sweeping  than  that  pro- 
posed in  1814,^  was  adopted.  It  provided  that  a 
part  of  the  able-bodied  citizens  should  be  drawn  by 
lot  for  service  in  the  army.  Land  grants  were 
made  to  Kansas,  and  the  Secretary  of  the  Treas- 
ury was  authorized  to  obtain  further  loans.  Ap- 
propriations for  this  year  amounted  to  about  $972,- 
000,000.  Congress  adjourned  ]March  3d,  1863. 
West  Virginia  had  become  a  State  of  the  Union, 
December  31st,  1S62. 

10.  By  the  Writ  of  Habeas  Corpus,  in  sub- 
stance, an  imprisoned  person  obtains  an  examina- 
tion before  the  courts  and  a  release,  if  his  imprison- 
ment is  shown  to  be  without  warrant  of  law.  Its 
Suspension  was  considered  necessary  on  account 
of  the  number  of  Northern  courts  disposed  to  re- 
sist military  arrests  of  suspected  persons.      It  is 

I  See  p.  83. 


204  American  Politico,  [1864 

certain,  however,  tliat  the  summary  arrests  and  im- 
prisonments in  United  States  forts,  the  seizures  of 
newspapers,  and  the  dispersions  of  public  meet- 
ings, which  followed  the  suspension  of  the  writ  of 
Habeas  Corpus,  did  much  to  increase  the  opposi- 
tion vote  for  a  time.  The  month  of  July,  1863, 
was  notable  for  the  sickening  scenes  of  the  three 
days'  Draft  Riot  in  New  York  City,  originating  in 
resistance  to  the  Conscription  Act  of  the  last  Ses- 
sion. It  was  forcibly  suppressed,  and  the  draft 
was  carried  out. 

II.  Congress  met   December   7th,    1863,   with  a 
XXXVIIIth    Congress,     Republican  majority 
1st    Session.  in     both     branches. 

In  the  House  Schuyler  Colfax,  of  Indiana,  a 
Republican,  was  chosen  Speaker.  Both  Houses 
passed  the  Internal  Revenue  Law,  for  the  col- 
lection of  a  revenue  from  domestic  manufactures, 
etc.,  the  Income  Tax  Law,  levying  a  tax  of  five 
per  cent,  on  incomes  over  $600,  and  the  National 
Bank  Law,  creating  a  system  of  banks  to  take 
the  place  of  State  banks.  The  Draft  and  Home- 
stead Laws  were  amended  and  strengthened,  and 
the  Fugitive  Slave  Law  of  1850  was  abolished.  A 
proposed  Xlllth  Amendment  to  the  Constitution 
abolishing  Slavery  was  adopted  by  the  Senate,  but 
did  not  receive  a  two-thirds  majority  in  the  House. 
Congress  adjourned  July  2,  1864. 

I  Senate,  36   Rep.,    14   Dem,     House,    102   Rep.,  75  Dem.,  9  *' Border 
States  men." 


1864.]  National  Conventions.  205 

12.  A  Convention  of  Radical  Men,  who  con- 
sidered President  Lincoln  timid  and  irresolute,  and 
who  wished  to  deal  with  rebellion  and  rebels  more 
harshly,  met  at  Cleveland,  Oiiio,  May  31st,  1864, 
and  nominated  John  C.  Fremont,  of  California,  and 
John  C.  Cochrane,  of  New  York.*  The  Republi- 
can National  Convention  met  at  Baltimore, 
June  7th,  and  adopted  a  platform  declaring  war 
upon  Slavery,  and  demanding  that  no  terms  but  un- 
conditional surrender  should  be  given  to  the  rebel- 
lious States.  It  nominated  Abraham  Lincoln,  of 
Illinois,  and  Andrew  Johnson,  of  Tennessee.-  The 
Democratic  National  Convention  met  at  Chi- 
cago, August  29th.  It  came  under  the  control  of 
the  Peace  Democracy,^  and  declared  in  its  platform 
that  it  was  the  sense  of  the  American  people  that 
after  four  years  of  failure  to  restore  the  Union  by 
war,  during  which  the  Constitution  had  been  vio- 
lated in  all  its  parts  under  the  plea  of  military  nec- 
essity, a  cessation  of  hostilities  ought  to  be  ob- 
tained. It  nominated  George  B.  McCiellan,  of 
New  Jersey,  and  George  H.  Pen^lleton,  of  Ohio. 

13.  The  Democratic  party  was  thus  couTmitted  to 
the  declaration  that  the  war  was  a  failure.  This 
drove  the  doubtful  votes  into  support  of  the  Re- 

1  They  afterwards  withdrew  in  favor  of  the  Republican  candidates. 

2  Johnson's  nomination  was  exactly  parallel  with  that  of  Tyler  by  the 
Whigs.  Both  were  Strict  Constructionists  by  nature,  temporarily  adrift 
•without  a  party,  and  offered  by  the  Loose  Constructionist  parly  a  place 
raiher  of  honor  than  importance,  to  secure  Opposition  votes. 

3  Called  by  the  Union  party  "  Copperheads,"  from  a  well-known  North- 
ern snake- 


2o6  American  Politics.  [1865 

publican  candidates,  and  assured  their  success.  In 
the  Presidential  Election  in  November  Repub- 
lican electors  were  chosen  by  all  the  States  not  in 
rebellion  except  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  and  Ken- 
tucky. The  membership  of  the  XXXIXth  Con- 
gress was  also  overwhelmingly  Republican. 

14.  Congress  met  December  6th,  1864.     In  Feb- 
XXXVIIIth  Congress,    ruary,  1865,  the  House 
2d    Session.  finally       passed       the 

Xlllth  Amendment  which  had  failed  at  the  last 
Session  to  receive  a  two-thirds  majority.'  It  was 
modeled  on  the  language  of  the  Ordinance  of  1787,^ 
which  thus,  after  a  struggle  of  nearly  eighty  years 
became  the  law  of  the  land.  A  Joint  Resolution 
was  passed  by  both  Houses,  declaring  that  the  re- 
bellious States  were  in  such  condition  that  no  valid 
election  had  been  held  in  them  for  electors,  and 
that  no  electoral  votes  from  them  should  be 
counted.  The  electoral  votes  were  counted,  and 
were  found  to  be  for  Lincoln  and  Johnson  212,  and 
for  McClellan  and  Pendleton  21.  Lincoln  and 
Johnson  were  therefore  declared  elected.  At 
this  Session  the  Freedmen's  Bureau  Bill  was 
passed.  It  organized  a  bureau  for  the  protection 
of  freedmen  and  refugees  from  the  South.  March 
3d,  1865,  Congress  adjourned,  and  March  4th  Lin- 
coln and  Johnson  were  sworn  into  office. 

1  This  was  ratified  by  three-fourths  of  the  States,  and  was  proclaimed  to 
be  in  force,  December  i8th,  1865. 

2  See  page  204.     This  provision  of  the  ordinance  of  1787  had  been  imi- 
tated in  1S20  (Missouri)  and  in  1846  (Wiimot  Proviso). 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

TWENTIETH    ADMINISTRATION,    1865-1869. 

A-braham    Iiinooln,    President.      Andre^w•  Johnson,  Vice-President. 
XXXIXth  and  XLth  Congresses. 

Popular  vote- for  President  t?i  1864:  Rep.  2,216,067, 
Dem.  1,808,725. 

1.  The  gentleness,  kindliness,  and  greatness  of 
mind  of  President  Lincoln  were  just  beginning 
to  win  general  appreciation  when  he  fell  by  assas- 
sination, April  14th,  1865.  The  rebel  army  of 
Northern  Virginia  had  previously  surrendered,  and 
the  other  rebel  armies  rapidly  followed  its  example. 
On  the  death  of  President  Lincoln,  Andrew 
Johnson  succeeded  to  his  office,  and  to  his  diffi- 
cult task,  the  reconstruction  of  the  rebellious 
States. 

2.  The  Constitution  had  made  no  provision 
for  the  reception  of  a  State  which  had  formally 
claimed  the  right  to  secede,  and  renounced  its 
membership  in  the  Union.  To  admit  them  at 
once  to  their  former  position  would  have  been  to 
give,  the  negro  race  to  the  control  of  their  former 
masters.  The  claims  of  the  negroes  to  security  in 
their  lately  granted  freedom  seemed  to  the  mass  of 
Northern   people  superior  to  all  theoretical  argu- 

207 


2o8  American  Politics.  [1865 

ments  on  the  relations  of  the  States  to  the  Federal 
Government.  They  believed  that  the  rebellious 
States  should  be  kept  in  a  position  approaching 
that  of  Territories,  until  Congress  should  be  satis- 
fied of  the  safety  of  the  negroes  and  re-admit  them 
to  the  Union. 

3.  To  President  Johnson,  a  Strict  Constructionist 
by  nature,  the  idea  that  a  State  could  be  punished  for 
treason  by  a  Federal  Congress  was  incomprehen- 
sible. His  Policy  of  Reconstruction  was  to 
punish  individuals,  if  necessary,  for  treason,  but  to 
re-install  the  States  at  once  in  all  the  powers  held 
by  them  before  rebellion,  and  this  policy  he  en- 
deavored to  carry  out  by  successive  Proclamations. 
He  declared  all  the  Southern  ports  open  to  com- 
merce, except  four  in  Texas.  He  proclaimed  am- 
nesty and  pardon  to  all  persons  engaged  in  the 
rebellion,  except  fourteen  classes  of  leaders,  who 
were  to  make  special  applications  for  pardon.  He 
restored  the  writ  of  Habeas  Corpus  in  the  Northern 
States,  and  appointed  Provisional  Governors  for 
the  rebellious  States,  with  the  purpose  of  organiz- 
ing permanent  govenmients  as  soon  as  possible. 

4-  The  Republican  State  Conventions  of 
1865  generally  approved  the  President's  policy,  so 
far  as  it  had  been  developed,  but  stipulated  that  the 
Southern  States  should  be  held  under  provisional 
governments  until  they  should  recognize  and  accept 
the  results  of  the  war,  including  the  freedom  and  pro- 
tection of  the  nesfroes.     Unfortunatelv,  the  license 


1865.]  Reconstruction.  209 

of  camp  life  had  left  many  of  the  Southern  whites 
with  but  slight  disposition  to  live  on  terms  of  po- 
litical equality  with  the  former  slaves.  Cases  of 
outrage  became  common,  so  that  the  new  Congress, 
which  was  overwhelmingly  Republican,  came  to- 
gether with  a  fixed  determination  to  protect  the 
negroes  at  any  cost.  The  party  leaders  seem  to  have 
been  suspicious  of  President  Johnson's  willingness 
to  disregard  "  State  Rights  "  in  assisting  them. 

5.  Congress  met  December  4th,  1865,  with  a  Re- 
XXXIXth  Congress,  pubHcan  majority  in  both 

1st  Session.  branches,'sufficient,  if  nec- 

essary, to  carry  any  bill  over  the  President  veto. 
In  the  House  Speaker  Colfax  was  re-elected.  In 
February,  1866,  a  supplementary  Freedman's 
Bureau  Bill  was  passed  by  both  Houses.  It 
aimed  at  the  further  assistance  of  the  freedmen, 
but  was  vetoed  by  the  President  on  the  grounds 
that  it  provided  for  unlimited  distribution  of  lands 
to  them,  that  it  tended  to  keep  the  minds  of  the 
negroes  restless  and  uneasy,  and  that  it  had  been 
passed  by  a  Congress  which  was  without  represen- 
tatives from  the  Southern  States.  An  effort  to 
pass  the  bill  over  the  veto  did  not  receive  the  full 
party  vote,  and  consequently  did  not  obtain  a  two- 
thirds  majority.  It  was  now  evident  that  there 
was  at  least  a  disagreemtnt  between  the  President 
and  the  party  which  had  elected  him. 

6.  An  open  rupture  followed  the  passage  of  the 

I  Senate,  40  Rep.,  11  Dem.     House,  145  Rep.,  40  Dem. 
14 


2IO  American  Politics.  [iS^S 

Civil  Rights  Bill  in  March.  It  was  designed  to 
make  freedmen  citizens  of  the  United  States'  (with 
the  right  to  sue  and  be  sued,  to  make  contracts, 
etc.),  and  to  punish  by  fine  and  imprisonment  any 
person  interfering  with  those  rights.  It  gave  Fed- 
eral courts  exclusive  cognizance  of  offenses  against 
the  Act,  and  Federal  officers  the  power  of  arresting 
and  holding  offenders  to  bail.  The  bill  was  vetoed. 
The  reasons  given  were  that  it  gave  Federal  citizen- 
ship to  4,000,000  human  beings  just  released  from 
bondage  ;  that  it  attempted  to  give  the  law  where 
the  States  had  their  own  rights  ;  that  it  overrode 
the  State  courts,  and  created  a  swarm  of  Federal 
officials  charged  with  the  power  of  arrest  for  the 
discriminating  protection  of  the  black  race.  The 
bill  was  passed  over  the  veto  and  became  law. 

7.  For  the  purpose  of  securing  the  principle  aimed 
at  in  the  Civil  Rights  Bill  by  making  it  a  part  of 
the  Constitution,  both  Houses  adopted  the  XlVth 
Amendment  in  June,^  The  President  informed 
Congress  of  his  disapproval  of  it.  A  Homestead 
Bill  was  passed,  applying  previous  Homestead  Bills 
to  public  lands  in  the  South.  It  was  agreed  by  both 
Houses  that  no  delegation  from  any  of  the  States 
lately  in  rebellion  should  be  received  by  either 
House  until  both  Houses  should  unite  in  declaring 
such  State  again  a  member  of  the  Union. 

1  IJiit  this  did  not  carry  the  ri^hl  to  vote.     For  that,  another  Amend 
-ment  was  necessary 

2  Ratified  by  three-fourths  of  the  States  and  declared  in  force  Juij-  arsitr 
2868. 


1866.]    Second  Preedjuens  Bureatc  Bill.        Ill 

8.  In  July  the  Second  Freedmen's  Bureau 

Bill  was  passed  by  both  Houses.  It  contuiued  the 
bureau  for  two  years,  provided  for  selling  lands 
to  the  freedmen  at  a  low  rate,  reserved  the  prop- 
erty of  the  late  Confederate  Government  for  their 
education,  and  ordered  the  President  to  give  mili- 
tary protection  to  the  negroes  whenever  they  were 
molested.  It  was  vetoed  by  the  President.  The 
reasons  given  were  that  it  gave  the  President  too 
much  power  ;  that  the  civil  courts  were  perfectly 
able  to  do  all  that  the  bureau  aimed  at  in  the  way 
of  protection  ;  and  that  the  bureau  had  become  a 
political  machine,  by  which  the  negroes  were  used 
for  the  personal  advantage  of  its  officers.  The  bill 
was  passed  over  the  veto  and  became  law.  After 
reducing  the  army  and  the  revenue  tax,  and  reviv- 
ing the  grade  of  General  of  the  Army,  Congress 
adjourned  July  28th,  1866. 

9.  The  Conflict  between  the  President  and  the 
Republican  majority  had  now  become  open  and 
angry.  The  Republican  National  Committee  ex- 
pelled its  chairman  and  two  of  its  members,  who 
had  sided  with  the  President.  It  also  issued  an 
Address  to  the  Party,  defining  the  issues 
between  Congress  and  the  President.  It  called 
the  attention  of  the  people  to  the  fact  that  the 
Constitution  made  no  provisions  for  the  treatment 
of  insurgent  States  forcibly  reduced  to  obedience,^ 

I  But  this  "break"  would  have  beeu  of  little  importance,  but  for  the 
legacy  left  by  Slavery,  the  freedmen.  This  was  the  element  of  the  ques- 
tion which  caused  the  trouble,  and  not  ne  defect  in  the  Constitution. 


212  American  Politics.  [1866 

and  claimed  that  the  Republican  plan  for  tiding 
over  this  obstacle  was  wise  and  honest,  inasmuch 
as  it  would  "  give  loyalty  a  fair  start."  It  is  asserted 
that,  under  the  President's  plan,  the  whites  lately 
in  rebellion  would  seize  the  reins  of  power,  reduce 
the  blacks  to  real  slavery  under  some  plausible 
name,  and  retain  representation  for  them,  while  deny- 
ing their  political  rights. 

10.  Congress  met  December  3d,  1866.  The  con- 
XXXIXth  Congress,  flict  between  the  Legisla- 

2d  Session.  tive   and   the    Executive 

was  renewed  at  once.  The  first  bill  of  the  Session, 
giving  negroes  the  right  to  vote  in  the  District 
of  Columbia,  was  vetoed  and  passed  over  the  veto. 
Early  in  the  Session  a  Resolution  to  impeach  Presi- 
dent Johnson  was  adopted  by  the  House,  and  a 
committee  appointed  to  take  testimony.  But  upon 
their  report  the  House  decided  that  the  grounds  of 
impeachment  were  not  sufficient,  and  thus  this  reso- 
lution was  finally  lost. 

11.  The  main  feature  of  this  Session  was  a  per- 
sistent effort  to  Limit  the  President's  Power, 
originating  in  the  fear  that  he  designed  some  attack 
upon  the  privileges,  or  perhaps  the  existence,  of  the 
Legislative.  In  January,  1867,  a  bill  was  passed 
which  took  from  the  President  the  powder  given  by 
the  Act  of  July,  1862,  to  proclaim  general  amnesty.' 


I  The  President  denied  the  right  of  Congress  to  do  so,  and  proceeded  to 
issue  further  Proclamations  of  Amnesty,  claiming  the  right  under  the 
Constitution- 


1 866.]       The  President  and  Congress.  213 

Provision  was  made  for  the  meeting  of  the  XLth 
and  all  succeeding  Congresses  immediately  after 
the  adjournment  of  the  preceding  Congress.' 
Authority  was  given  to  the  clerk  of  the  House,  be- 
fore its  meeting,  to  make  out  a  roll  of  regularly 
elected  members,  who  alone  should  take  part  in  the 
organization  of  the  House.^  The  Army  Appro- 
priation Bill  was  passed  with  a  "rider"  which 
took  from  the  President  the  command  of  the  army  by 
providing  that  his  orders  to  it  should  only  be  given 
through  the  General  of  the  Army,  who  should  not 
be  removed  without  the  previous  approval  of  the 
Senate.  It  also  disbanded  all  the  militia  of  the 
States  lately  in  rebellion.  The  President  informed 
Congress  that  he  signed  the  bill  that  the  appropria- 
tion might  not  be  lost,  but  that  he  protested  against 
the  "  rider,"  because  it  deprived  him  of  the  com- 
mand of  the  army,  and  eleven  States  of  their  militia, 
both  of  which  were  guaranteed  by  the  Constitution. 
12.  In  February  a  bill  for  the  admission  of  the 
State  of  Nebraska  was  passed  over  the  veto.  It 
provided  that  the  new  Stale  should  never  deny  the 
right  of  voting  to  any  person  because  of  his  race 
or  color.  Bills  were  also  passed  to  give  Federal 
courts  the  power  to  issue  writs  of  Habeas  Corpus 
when  any  person  was  deprived  of  liberty. 

1  This  was  done  by  the  XLth  Congress,  but  abandoned  after  President 
Johnson's  term  of  office. 

2  To  prevent  the  organization  of  any  pseudo-Congress  by  Northern 
Democrats  and  Southern  claimants  of  admission.  Fortunately  this  ar- 
rangement has  not  yet  caused  any  dispute  as  to  the  organization  of  tu« 
House. 


214  .   American  Politics,  {y'^^l 

13.  March  2(1,  1867,  the  Bill  to  provide  Effi- 
cient Governments  for  the  Insurrectionary 
States  was  passed  over  the  veto.  It  embodied 
all  the  claims  of  Congress  to  control  the  re-admis- 
sion of  the  Southern  States.  It  divided  them  into 
military  districts,  each  under  the  government  of  a 
Brigadier-General,  who  should  protect  the  rights  of 
all  persons.  Each  State  was  to  remain  under  this 
military  government  until  a  State  Convention,  cho- 
sen without  regard  to  race  or  color,  should  form  a 
State  government  and  ratify  the  XlVth  Amend- 
ment. When  this  should  be  done  Congress  engaged 
to  re-admit  the  State  to  the  Union. 

14.  The  same  day  the  so-called  Tenure  of  Of- 
fice Bill  was  passed  over  the  veto.  It  reversed 
all  previous  legislation  upon  the  doubtful  point  of 
the  President's  power  to  remove  officials  without 
the  consent  of  the  Senate.  Hitherto,  from  the  time 
of  the  1st  Congress,  it  had  been  held  that  the  con- 
sent of  the  Senate  was  necessary  in  making  an 
appointment,  but  that  the  power  of  removal  was 
wholly  in  the  President.  Under  this  interpretation 
it  was  feared  that  there  would  be  a  wholesale 
removal  of  public  officials  after  Congress  should 
adjourn.  This  bill  provided  that  civil  officers 
should  hold  office  until  their  successors  should 
qualify  ;  that  the  Cabinet  should  hold  over  the 
President's  term  of  office,  and  should  only  be 
removable  with  the  Senate's  approval  ;  that,  while 
Congress  was  not  in  session,  the  President  might 


1867.]  Tenure  of  Offiee.  215 

suspend  (not  remove)  any  official  ;  but  that  if  the 
Senate  at  its  next  session  did  not  concur  in  the  sus- 
pension the  suspended  official  should  resume  his 
office  ;  and  that  the  President  might  fill  any  vacancy 
by  death  or  resignation  while  Congress  was  not  in 
session.  Every  removal,  appointment,  or  accept- 
ance or  exercise  of  office  contrary  to  the  provisions 
of  this  Act,  was  declared  to  be  "  a  high  misdemea- 
nor," '  and  punishable  by  fine  and  imprisonment, 
or  both.  Congress  adjourned  March  3d,  1867. 
Nebraska  had  become  a  State  of  the  Union 
March  1st. 

15.  Three  Extra  Sessions  of  Congress  were 
XLth  Congress,  held  this  year.  The  first  met 
Extra  Sessions.  March  4th,  and  adjourned 
March  30th,  1S67.  The  second  met  July  3d,  and 
adjourned  July  20th.  The  third  met  November 
2 1  St,  and  adjourned  at  the  opening  of  the  first 
Regular  Session.  The  Republican  majority  in  both 
branches  was  continued,  and,  though  slightly  re- 
duced, was  sufficient  to  overrule  the  veto,  if  neces- 
sary.^ In  the  House  Speaker  Colfax  was  re-elected. 
These  almost  continuous  Sessions  were  mainly  for 
the  purpose  of  keeping  a  check  upon  the  Southern 
policy  of  the  President.  The  work  of  reconstruc- 
tion by  Congress  had  been  fully  laid  out  by  the  last 
Session.  It  was  only  necessary  for  this  Session  to 
secure  its  accomplishment. 

1  Apparently  with  a  view  to  future  impeachment. 

2  Senate,  Rep.  40,  Dem.  14.     House,  13S  Rep.,  47  Dem, 


2i6  American  Politics.  [1868 

16.  Congress  met  December  2d,  1867.  The  prin- 
XLth  Congress,  cipal  topic  of  interest  at  this 

1st  Session.  Session  was  the  train  of  events 
which  led  to  the  impeachment  of  the  President. 
August  5th,  1867,  he  had  notified  Edwin  M. 
Stanton,  Secretary  of  War,  whom  he  particularly- 
disliked,  that  "public  considerations  of  a  high  char- 
acter "  compelled  him  to  ask  the  Secretary  to  resign. 
Stanton  ironically  replied  that  **  public  considera- 
tions of  high  character"  forbade  him  to  resign. 
He  was  therefore  suspended,  under  the  provisions 
of  the  Tenure  of  Office  Bill,  until  Congress  should 
meet,  and  the  General  of  the  Army,  U.  S.  Grant, 
was  appointed  Secretary  of  War  ad  interim.  Stanton 
protested  that  he  denied  the  President's  right  to 
remove  him,  but  would  yield  to  superior  force. 

17.  January  14th,  1868,  the  Senate  refused  to  agree 
to  Stanton's  removal.  General  Grant  at  once  aban- 
doned the  office,  and  Stanton  again  took  possession. 
The  President  now  determined  to  disobey  the  Ten- 
ure of  Office  Bill,  and  force  an  issue  with  Congress, 
February  21st  he  again  removed  Stanton,  and 
appointed  General  Lorenzo  Thomas  in  his  place. 
The  same  day  the  Senate  voted  that  the  removal 
was  illegal.  General  Thomas,  however,  accepted 
the  appointment,  and  gave  Stanton  notice  to  quit. 
Stanton  held  to  his  office,  and  sent  the  notice  to 
the  Speaker  of  the  House.  Thereupon  the  House, 
February  24th,  resolved  that  the  President  be 
Impeached  before  the  Senate  for  high  crimes 
and  misdemeanor-tt- 


1 868.]     Impeachment  of  the  President.         217 

18.  March  5th  The  Trial  of  the  Impeach- 
ment was  begun  before  the  Senate  sitting  as  a 
Court  of  Impeachment,  with  Chief  Justice  Chase, 
of  the  Supreme  Court,  in  the  chair.  The  Articles 
of  Impeachment  were  mainly  for  violation  of  the 
Tenure  of  Office  Bill.  During  the  early  part  of 
the  trial  the  President  made  a  tour  of  the  North 
and  West,  and  in  many  passionate  speeches  to  the 
crowds  which  met  him  denounced  the  XLth  Con- 
gress as  "  no  Congress,"  referring  to  its  refusal  to 
admit  the  delegations  from  Southern  States.  The 
House  made  these  and  other  imprudent  utterances 
the  basis  of  additional  Articles  of  Impeachment. 

19.  The  trial  lasted  until  May  i6th,  when  three 
of  the  main  Articles  were  voted  on.  The  vote 
stood  35  for  conviction  and  19  for  acquittal,  7  reg- 
ular and  4  Administration  Republicans  voting  in 
the  minority.  It  was  thus  apparent  that  there  was 
not  a  two-thirds  majority  for  conviction.  The  Sen- 
ate, therefore,  not  waiting  to  vote  on  the  remaining 
Articles,  adjourned  sine  die,  and  the  trial  was  aban- 
doned. Chief  Justice  Chase  directed  a  verdict  of 
acquittal  to  be  entered,  and  Stanton  resigned  his 
office.     Congress  adjourned  July  27th,  1868. 

20.  The  Presidential  contest  between  the  two 
parties  naturally  turned  upon  the  right  of  Congress 
to  fill  the  gap  in  the  Constitution,  and  lay  down 
rules  for  the  re-admission  of  the  revolting  States. 
Its  right  to  do  so  was  inferred  by  the  loose  con- 
structionist party,  and  denied  by  the  strict  construe- 


2i8  American  Politics.  [1868 

tionist  party.  The  Republican  National  Con- 
vention met  at  Chicago,  May  20th,  1S68,  and 
adopted  a  platform  holding  that  the  Southern 
States  had  abandoned  and  lost  their  positions  in 
the  Union  by  seceding,  and  could  only  be  re- 
admitted on  terms  satisfactory  to  Congress.  It 
approved  the  terms  offered,  and  declared  that  it  was 
the  business  of  Congress  to  protect  equal  sufl'rage 
in  the  South,  It  nominated  Ulysses  S.  Grant, 
of  Illinois,  and  Schuyler  Colfax,  of  Indiana.  The 
Democratic  National  Convention  met  at 
New  York  City,  July  4th,  and  adopted  a  platform 
demanding  that  the  Southern  States  should  imme- 
diately and  unconditionally  be  given  the  represen- 
tation in  Congress  and  the  power  of  self-government 
guaranteed  by  the  Constitution,  and  that  the  regu- 
lation of  suffrage  should  be  left  to  the  States.  It 
nominated  Horatio  Seymour,  of  New  York,  and 
Francis  P.  Blair,  of  Missouri. 

21.  At  the  Presidential  Election  in  November' 
Democratic  Electors  were  chosen  by  New  York, 
New  Jersey,  Oregon,  and  by  five  Southern  States. 
All  the  other  States  which  were  allowed  to  vote^ 
chose  Republican  electors.  As  the  issue  between 
the  parties  was  distinctly  made,  the  result  of  the 
election  would  seem  to  settle  the  rule  that  any  State 
which  formally  casts  off  allegiance  to  the  Federal 


1  Alleged  to  have  been  carried  by  frauds  in  New  York  City. 

2  Virginia,  Georgia,  Mississippi,  and  Texas  had  not  yet  complied  with 
the  conditions  of  Congress  for  re-admission. 


1869.]  Presidential  Election,  219 

Government,  and  is  compelled  to  submit,  must  be 
re-admitted  by  Congress  in  much  the  same  manner 
as  a  Territory  applying  for  admission  as  a  State. 

22.  Congress  met  December  7th,  1868.  There 
XLth  Congress,  was  little  party  contest  at  this 

2d  Session.  Session.     In    February,    1869, 

the  electoral  votes  were  counted,  and  were  found  to 
be,  for  Grant  and  Colfax  214,  and  for  Seymour  and 
Blair  80,  if  the  vote  of  Georgia  were  allowed,  and 
71  without  it.  As  the  vote  of  Georgia  did  not 
affect  the  result  the  question  was  left  undecided. 
Grant  and  Colfax  were  therefore  declared  elected. 
February  26th  the  XVth  Amendment  to  the 
Constitution,  guaranteeing  the  right  of  suffrage, 
without  regard  to  race,  color,  or  previous  condition 
of  servitude,  was  adopted  by  Congress.  March  3d, 
1869,  Congress  adjourned,  and  March  4th  Grant 
and  Colfax  were  sworn  into  office. 

I  Ratified  by  three-fourths  of  the  States,  and  declared  in  force  March 
30th,  1870. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

TWENTY-FIRST    ADMINISTRATION,    1869-1873. 

Ulysses  S.  Grant,  President.  Schuyler  Colfax,  Vice-President 

Xlilst  andXLIId  Cong'resses. 

Popular  vote  for  President  in  1868  :  Rep.  3,015,071, 
Deni.  2,709,613. 

I.  Congress  met  March  4th,  1869,  with  a 
XLIst  Congress,  Republican  majority  in  both 
Extra  Session.  branches.*  James  G.  Blaine, 
of  Maine,  a  Republican,  was  chosen  Speaker  in 
the  House.  The  principal  business  of  the  Session 
was  the  confirmation  by  the  Senate  of  the  new 
President's  nominations  to  positions  in  the  Cabinet,^ 
and  debate  as  to  Mississippi,  Texas,  and  Virginia, 
which  had  not  yet  ratified  the  XlVth  Amendment 
or  been  reconstructed.  April  loth  a  bill  was  passed 
authorizing  the  people  of  these  States  to  vote  upon 
the  constitutions  already  prepared  for  them  by  State 
conventions,  and  to  elect  State  officers  and  mem- 
bers of  Congress.  A  new  condition,  however,  was 
imposed   upon   their  ultimate   re-admission  ;  their 

1  Senate,  58  Rep.,  10  Dem.,  8  vacancies  ;  House,  149  Rep.,  64  Dem.,  25 
vacancies.    Mississippi,  Texas,  Virginia,  and  Georgia  were  not  represented. 

2  Except  that  of  A.  T.  Stewart,  of  New  York,  as  Secretary  of  the  Treas- 
ury. He  was  ineligible  by  statute,  being  engaged  in  commerce,  and  his 
name  was  withdrawn. 

220 


iS/o.]  Reconstruction.  221 

Legislatures  were  required  to  ratify  the  XVth  as 
well  as  the  XlVth  Amendment.  Congress  adjourned 
April  loth.  During  the  year  the  Supreme  Court, 
in  the  important  case  of  Texas  vs.  White/  ren- 
dered a  decision  sustaining  Reconstruction  by 
Congress.  The  Court  held  that  the  ordinances  of 
secession  had  been  absolutely  null  ;  that  the  seced- 
ing States  had  never  been  "out  of  the  Union"  ; 
that  they  had,  however,  during  and  after  their 
rebellion,  no  State  governments  "  competent  to 
represent  the  State  in  its  relations  with  the  National 
Government  "  ;  and  that  Congress  had  the  power 
to  re-establish  the  broken  relations  of  a  rebellious 
State  to  the  Union. 

2.  Congress  met  December  6th,  1869.  The  Presi- 
XLIst  Congress,     dent's    Message    announced 

1st  Session.  that    Virginia   had    fulfilled 

the  conditions  precedent  to  recognition.  Before 
the  close  of  the  Session,  Mississippi,  Texas,  and 
Georgia  had  also  fulfilled  the  conditions,  and  the 
formal  work  of  Reconstruction  was  completed  by 
the  re-admission  of  the  last-named  State  in  July, 
1870.^     The  ratifications  of  the  XVth  Amendment 


1  7  Wall.,  7CX). 

2  Tennessee  was  re-admitted  July  24th,  1866,  and  Arkansas  June  22d, 
1868.  The  act  of  June  25th,  1868,  provided  for  the  admission  of  North 
Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Louisiana,  (leorgia,  Alabama,  and  Florida,  as 
soon  as  they  should  have  fulfilled  the  conditions  imposed  by  the  Acts  of 
Marcii,  1867  (see  p.  214) ;  and  these  States  (except  Georgia)  were  succes- 
sively admitted  without  further  legislation.  Virginia,  as  above  stated,  was 
re-admitted  January  25th,  1870.  Mississippi  February  23d,  1870,  and  Texas 
March  30th,   1870.     Georgia,  after  a  partial   re-admission,  had   declared 


222  American  Politics,  [1870 

by  these  States  made  it  a  part  of  the  Constitution,^ 
and  a  bill  was  passed  to  enforce  it  by  making  penal 
any  interference,  by  force  or  by  fraud,  with  the 
exercise  of  the  right  of  suffrage  as  extended  by  the 
Amendment,  and  by  authorizing  the  President  to 
use  the  army  to  prevent  violations  of  the  Act.  An 
Act  was  also  passed  to  amend  the  naturalization 
laws  ;  it  made  it  penal  to  obtain,  use,  dispose  of,  or 
register  or  vote  upon  a  false  or  fraudulent  certifi- 
cate of  naturalization,  authorized  the  appointment 
of  Federal  supervisors  of  elections,  in  cities  of  over 
20,000  inhabitants,  with  the  power  of  summary 
arrest  for  any  offence  committed  in  their  view,  and 
extended  the  privilege  of  naturalization  to  alien 
Africans.  Congress  adjourned  July  15th,  1870. 
At  the  December  Term  of  1869  the  Supreme 
Court  had  decided  that  the  action  of  Congress  in 
1862,  in  giving  a  legal-tender  character  to  the 
paper  currency,^  was  unconstitutional.  In  March, 
1870,  after  the  complexion  of  the  Court  had  been 
changed  by  the  appointment  of  two  new  Justices,^ 
the  legal-tender  question  was  again  introduced  in 
another  case,  and  the  previous  decision  was  reversed 
by  the  votes  of  the  two  new  Justices. 

negroes  incapable  of  holding  office  ;  the  State  was  therefore  admitted  by 
special  Act,  July  15th,  1870,  after  revoking  her  objectionable  action  and 
also  ratifying  the  XVth  Amendment. 

1  See  p.  219. 

2  See  p.  202.  Chief  Justice  S.  P.  Chase,  who  delivered  the  opinion, 
had  been  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  1862,  but  had  not  originated  the 
legal-tender  feature  of  the  currency. 

3  One  was  a  new  appointment  under  a  law  creating  an  additional  Jus- 
ticeship ;  the  other  was  appointed  in  place  of  a  Justice  who  had  resigned. 


iS/o.]  The  Kii  Klux  Klan.  223 

3.  The  Reconstruction  Acts  of  March,  1867,  had 
prohibited  persons  disabled  from  holding  office  by 
the  XlVth  Amendment,  as  it  was  then  proposed, 
from  taking  part  in  the  State  conventions  held 
under  the  Act  ;  and  this  disability  had  been 
extended  and  perpetuated  in  the  new  constitutions 
of  some  of  the  Southern  States,  particularly  South 
Carolina,  T.ouisiana,  and  Arkansas,  by  prohibiting 
the  exercise  of  the  suffrage  by  any  person  still 
under  disability  to  hold  office  by  the  XlVth  Amend- 
ment. Shortly  before  the  Presidential  election  of 
1868  it  appears  that  a  secret,  oath-bound  organi- 
zation was  formed  in  Tennessee  under  the  name 
of  the  Ku  Klux  Klan/  mainly  composed  of 
persons  under  disabilities,  and  having  for  its  object 
the  terrorizing  of  white  and  colored  Republican 
voters  by  murder,  maiming,  or  whipping.  The 
organization  spread  rapidly  into  other  Southern 
States,  but  naturally  found  its  most  congenial  loca- 
tion in  the  three  States  above  named.  Throughout 
the  summer  of  1870  a  Senate  committee  took  evi- 
dence on  the  subject,  which  convinced  the  Repub- 
lican majority  that  "  the  issue  between  government 
and  anarchy  "  in  the  South  was  fairly  presented. 
The  Democratic  minority,  while  it  deplored  the 
"  detestable  and  wicked  outrages  "  which  it  had 
found,  believed  that  their  number  had  been  grossly 
exaggerated  for  political  purposes. 

I   Known  by  various  other  names.     See  Century  Mag.,  xxviii,  392. 


224  American  Politics .  [i^/i 

4.  Congress    met    December  5th,   1870,   and    in 
XLIst  Congress,     January,  187 1,  by  the  admis- 
2d  Session.  sion  of   the   Georgia  mem- 

bers, all  the  States  were  represented  in  Congress 
for  the  first  time  since  December,  i860.'  The 
President's  message  dealt  largely  with  a  project 
for  annexing  to  the  United  States  the  West  Indian 
Republic  of  San  Domingo,  or  Dominica.  A 
treaty  for  that  purpose  had  been  negotiated 
between  the  Presidents  of  the  two  Republics,  Sep- 
tember 4th,  1869,  but  had  been  rejected  by  the 
Senate  at  its  last  Session  ;  and  President  Grant 
now  suggested  an  annexation  by  joint  resolution, 
as  in  the  case  of  Texas,^  which  would  require  only 
a  majority  vote  in  the  Senate.  A  joint  resolution 
was  passed  authorizing  the  President  to  appoint 
three  commissioners  to  examine  the  condition  of 
San  Domingo  and  the  feeling  of  its  people  for  or 
against  annexation.  An  Act  was  passed  to  enforce 
the  XVth  Amendment ;  it  extended  the  powers  of 
Federal  supervisors,  marshals,  and  deputy-marshals 
over  elections  and  registrations,  gave  Federal  Cir- 
cuit Courts  exclusive  jurisdiction  over  all  cases 
arising  under  the  Act,  and  empowered  them  to 
punish  any  State  officer  who  should  proceed  in 
such  cases  in  contempt  of  their   jurisdiction,     A 

1  Congress  was  now  divided  politically  as  follows  :  Senate,  6i  Rep.,  13 
Dem.;  House,  172  Rep.,  71  Dem. 

2  To  this  it  was  objected  that  only  a  State  could  be  annexed  by  joint 
resolution,  and  that  a  Territory,  as  San  Domingo  was  intended  to  be, 
could  be  acquired  only  by  treaty,  if  at  all. 


18/ 1.]  The  Force  Bill,  225 

Senate  committee  was  appointed  to  investigate  the 
condition  of  the  Southern  States,  and  Congress 
adjourned,  March  4th,  187 1.  During  this  year  the 
long-standing  Alabama  Claims  of  the  United 
States  upon  Great  Britain,  arising  from  the  depre- 
dations of  Anglo-rebel  privateers,  were  referred  to 
arbitration  by  the  Treaty  of  Washington  of  May 
8th,  1871.^ 

5.  Congress  met  March  4th,  187 1,'  with  a  Repub- 
XLIId    Congress,      lican      majority     in     both 

Extra  Session.  branches.'  In  the  House, 
James  G.  Blaine,  of  Maine,  a  Republican,  was 
chosen  Speaker.  The  main  business  of  the  Ses- 
sion was  the  appointment  of  a  committee  of  seven 
Senators  and  fourteen  Representatives  to  inquire 
into  the  condition  of  the  late  insurrectionary 
States,*  and  the  passage  of  a  very  sweeping  Act  to 
enforce  the  XlVth  Amendment.^  This  Act  allowed 
suit  in  Federal  courts  by  the  party  injured  against 
any  person  who  should  in  any  way  deprive  another 
of  the  rights  of  a  citizen  ;  it  made  it  a  penal  offence 

i^Ratified  by  the  Senate,  May  24th,  1871.  The  arbitrators,  appointed 
by  Brazil,  Italy,  Switzerland,  Great  Britain,  and  the  United  States, 
awarded  the  United  States  $15,500,000,  in  gross,  as  damages,  September 
14th,  1872. 

2  This  was  the  last  Congress  which  met  by  law  immediately  after  the 
expiration  of  the  preceding  Congress  (see  p.  213). 

3  Senate,  57  Rep..  17  Dem.;  House,  138  Rep.,  103  Dem. 

4  Often  called  the  "  Ku  Klux  Committee." 

5  Often  called  the  "  Force  Bill."  There  is  a  striking  similarity  between 
the  second  section  of  the  Act  and  the  first  section  of  the  Sedition  Law  of 
1798.  Both  were  passed  on  the  same  ground,  the  actual  existence  of  war — 
foreign  in  1798  (see  p.  47).  and  domestic  in  1871. 

IS 


226  American  Politics.  [1871 

to  conspire  to  take  away  from  any  person  the  rights 
of  a  citizen  ;  it  provided  that  inability,  neglect,  or 
refusal  of  any  State  to  suppress  such  conspiracy, 
to  protect  the  rights  of  its  citizens,  or  to  call  upon 
the  President  for  aid,  should  be  "  deemed  a  denial 
by  such  State  of  the  equal  protection  of  the  laws" 
under  the  XlVth  Amendment;  it  declared  such 
conspiracies,  if  not  suppressed  by  the  authorities, 
*'  a  rebellion  against  the  Government  of  the  United 
States"  ;  it  authorized  the  President,  "  when  in  his 
judgment  the  public  safety  shall  require  it,"  to 
suspend  the  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus 
in  any  district,  and  suppress  the  insurrection  by 
means  of  the  army  and  navy;'  and  it  excluded 
from  the  jury-box  any  person  "who  shall,  in  the 
judgment  of  the  court,  be  in  complicity  with  any 
such  combination  or  conspiracy."  The  authority 
to  suspend  the  privilege  of  the  writ  of  haheai 
corpus  was  to  cease  after  the  end  of  the  next  regu- 
lar Session  of  Congress.  Congress  adjourned  April 
20th,  1871. 

6.  The  system  of  *'  rotation  in  office  "^  had,  since 
1829,  taken  from  the  people  at  large  the  ownership 
of  the  offices  filled  by  appointment  of  the  Presi- 
dent, and  vested  it  practically  in  the  politicians,  in 
and  out  of  Congress,  who  controlled  the  President's 
party.     An  Act  of  March  3d,  187 1,  authorized  the 

I  In  October  and  November,  1871,  a  number  of  counties  in  South  Caro- 
lina were  brought  under  the  provisions  of  this  section  by  the  President's 
proclamation.  2  See  page  113. 


1872.]  Civil  Service  Reform.  227 

President  to  begin  a  reform  in  the  Civil  Service, 
for  which  thinking  men  of  all  parties  had  long 
been  unanimously  anxious.  Under  its  provisions 
the  President  appointed  a  board  of  Civil  Service 
Commissioners  to  provide  for  the  examination  of 
applicants  for  minor  offices,  and  to  relieve  him  and 
his  Cabinet  from  the  necessity  of  deciding  upon 
such  applications.  The  system  was  begun  January 
ist,  1872,  and,  though  under  many  limitations  and 
discouragements,  continued  in  operation  for  nearly 
three  years  with  the  emphatic  commendation  of 
the  Cabinet  and  the  President ;  but  in  December, 
1874,  despite  two  direct  appeals  from  President 
Grant,  Congress  refused  to  make  any  further  appro- 
priation for  the  system,  and  it  was  abandoned. 
Although  since  revived,  it  has  not  been  carried  to 
the  full  extent  of  its  original  design. 

7.  Congress  met   December  4th,  187 1.     Much  of 
XLIId  Congress,     the  time  of  the  Session  was 
1st  Session.  consumed  in  efforts  to  pass 

a  bill  to  remr)ve  the  political  disabilities  imposed 
by  the  XlVth  Amendment.  It  was  introduced  by 
the  Democrats  in  various  forms,  but  was  regularly 
amended  by  the  Republicans  by  the  addition  to  it 
of  Senator  Sumner's  Supplementary  Civil  Rights 
Bill,  intended  to  prevent  discrimination  against 
negroes  by  common  carriers  and  other  licensed  or 
chartered  public  servants.  The  combined  bills 
(now  requiring  a  two-thirds  vote)  were  then  as 
regularly  voted  down  by  the  Democrats.     It  was 


228  American  Politics.  [1872 

not  until  May  22d,  iS72,that  a  separate  Amnesty 
Bill  became  law.'  A  general  Election  Law  for 
the  whole  country,  after  being  lost  in  the  House, 
was  placed  by  the  Senate  as  a  "  rider  "^  upon  the 
Civil  Appropriation  Bill,  and  so  passed,  but  with  a 
proviso  that  the  Federal  supervisors  of  elections 
appointed  under  it  should  have  no  power  of  arrest. 
A  bill  to  extend  the  habeas  corpus  section  of  the 
Force  Bill  of  the  last  Session  until  the  end  of  the 
next  Session  was  passed  by  the  Senate,  but  lost  in 
the  House.  Congress  adjourned  June  loth,  1872. 
8.  In  1870  the  Republican  party  in  Missouri  had 
split  into  two  parts.  The  "  Radical  "  wing  wished 
to  maintain  for  the  present  the  disqualifications 
imposed  on  the  late  rebels  by  the  State  Constitu- 
tion during  the  war;  the  "  liberal"  wing,  headed 
by  B.  Gratz  Brown  and  Carl  Schurz,  wished  to 
abolish  these  disqualifications  and  substitute  "uni- 
versal amnesty  and  universal  enfranchisement." 
Supported  by  the  Democrats,  the  Liberal  Re- 
publicans carried  the  State,  though  opposed  by 
the  Federal  office-holders  and  the  influence  of  the 
Administration.  This  success  stimulated  a  reac- 
tion in  the  National  Republican  party,  many  of 
whose  members  believed  that  the  powers  of  the 
Federal  Government  over  the  local  concerns  of  the 
States  had  already  been  enforced  up  to  or  beyond 
constitutional   limits,  that  the  various  enforcement 

I  About  750  persons,  who  had  held  the  highest  positions  under  the  U.  S. 
Government  were  excepted  from  its  provisions.  a  See  p.  158. 


1872.]    The  Liberal  Republican  Movement.     229 

Acts  were  designed  rather  for  the  political  advance- 
ment of  President  Grant's  personal  adherents  than 
for  the  benefit  of  the  country,  the  freedmen,  or 
even  of  the  Republican  party  ;  and  that  the  efforts 
to  police  the  Southern  States  by  the  force  of  the 
Federal  Government  ought  to  cease.  In  the  spring 
of  187 1  the  Liberal  Republicans  and  Democrats 
of  Ohio  began  to  show  symptoms  of  common  feel- 
ing on  these  subjects,  and  during  the  summer  the 
"  Liberal  "  movement  continued  to  develop  within 
the  Republican  party.  January  24th,  1872,  the 
Missouri  Liberals  issued  a  call  for  a  National  Con- 
vention at  Cincinnati  in  the  following  May. 

9.  The  Liberal  Republican  National  Con- 
vention met  at  Cincinnati  May  ist,  1872,  and 
adopted  a  platform  pledging  the  party  to  maintain 
the  Union  of  the  States,  emancipation,  enfran- 
chisement, the  last  three  Amendments,  universal 
amnesty,  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus,  and  the  duty  of 
a  thorough  civil  service  reform.  In  respect  to  the 
relative  merits  of  protection  and  free  trade,  the 
Convention  confessed  itself  irreconcilably  divided, 
and  remitted  the  decision  of  the  question  to  the 
people  in  their  Congressional  elections.  So  far, 
although  the  Convention  was  itself  a  revolt  from 
the  ordinary  party  methods,  and  although  many  of 
its  members  were  inexperienced,  unmanageable, 
and  not  representative  of  any  important  body  of 
voters,  its  action  had  been  very  skilfully  suited  to 
its  acceptance  by  the  subsequent  Democratic  Con- 


230  American  Politics.  ['873 

vention.  After  six  ballots,  however,  in  most  of 
which  C.  F.  Adams,  of  Massachusetts,  led,  the 
friends  of  other  candidates  threw  their  votes  for 
Horace  Greeley,*  of  New  York,  and  he  was  nomi- 
nated by  482  votes  to  187  for  Adams.  B.  Gratz 
Brown,  of  Missouri,  was  nominated  for  Vice-Presi- 
dent. Some  of  the  "  Liberal  "  leaders  endeavored 
afterward,  without  success,  to  substitute  other  can- 
didates for  those  nominated.  The  Republican 
National  Convention  met  at  Philadelphia,  June 
5th,  renominated  President  Grant  unanimously, 
and  nominated  Henry  Wilson,  of  Massachusetts, 
for  the  Vice-Presidency  by  364^  votes  to  321 1^  for 
Schuyler  Colfax.  The  platform  detailed  the  party's 
past  achievements,  approved  civil  service  reform 
and  the  suppression  of  disorders  in  the  South,  and 
demanded  complete  equality  for  all  men  through- 
out the  country.  The  Democratic  National 
Convention  met  at  Baltimore,  June  9th,  and  by 
a  nearly  unanimous  vote  adopted  the  Cincinnati 
platform  and  candidates.  A  few  recalcitrant 
Democrats^  met  at  Louisville,  Ky.,  September  3d, 
and  nominated  Charles  O'Conor,  of  New  York, 
and  John  Quincy  Adams,  of  Massachusetts.'  The 
result  of  the  election  was  the  success  of  the  Repub- 


1  He  had  been,  during  his  whole  political  life,  an  ardent  protectionist 
and  an  unsparing  critic  of  his  Democratic  opponents,  through  the  columns 
of  the  newspaper  of  which  he  was  editor. 

2  Usually  called  "  straight-outs." 

3  The  candidates  declined  the  nomination,  but  about  30,000  scattering 
votes  were  cast  for  them. 


1 873-]  The  Credit  Mob  Hie  r.  231 

Ucan  candidates  by  an  increased  popular  and  elec- 
toral majority,  due  mainly  to  the  refusal  of  very 
many  Democrats  to  vote  for  Greeley. 

10.  Congress  met    December  2d,  1872.*     In  the 
XLIId    Congress,     House,  on  the  first  day  of 
2d  Session.  the    Session,    the    Speaker 

called  attention  to  the  charges  made  by  the  Demo- 
crats, during  the  campaign,  that  the  Vice-President, 
the  Vice-President  elect,  the  Secretary  of  the  Treas- 
ury, several  Senators,  the  Speaker  of  the  House, 
and  a  large  number  of  Representatives  had  been 
bribed,  during  the  years  1867  and  1868,  by  presents 
of  stock  in  a  corporation  known  as  the  Credit 
Mobilier,'  to  vote  and  act  for  the  benefit  of  the 
Union  Pacific  Railroad  Company.  On  his  motion 
an  investigating  committee  was  appointed,  L.  P. 
Poland,  of  Vermont,  being  chairman.  The  Poland 
Committee  reported  February  i8th,  1873,  recom- 
mending the  expulsion  of  Oakes  Ames,  of  Massa- 
chusetts, for  "selling  to  members  of  Congress 
shares  of  the  stock  of  the  Credit  Mobilier  below 
their  real  value,  with  intent  thereby  to  influence  the 
votes  of  such  members,"  and  of  James  Brooks,  of 
New  York,  for  receiving  such  stock.  The  House 
modified  the  proposed  expulsion  into  an  "absolute 
condemnation"  of  the  conduct  of  both  members.' 
An  Act  was  passed  to   abolish  the  franking  privi- 

I  Senate,  51  Rep.,  23  Dem.  and  Lib.;  House,  133  Rep.,  no  Dem.  and  Lib. 
a  Organized  to  contract  for  building  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad. 
3  Both  members  died  within  three  months  afterward. 


232  American  Politics.  [1873 

lege,  and  another  to  increase  the  salaries  of  officers 
of  the  Government.  The  President's  salary  was 
increased  from  $25,000  to  $50,000,  and  that  of 
Senators  and  Representatives  from  $5000  to  $7500 
per  annum.  This  last  feature  of  the  Act  proved 
very  unpopular,  as  it  was  made  to  apply  to  the 
salaries  of  the  Congressmen  who  passed  the  bill,* 
and  it  was  commonly  known  as  the  Salary  Grab. 
In  February,  1873,  the  Electoral  votes  were  counted 
and  were  found  to  be,  for  President,  Grant,  286, 
T.  A.  Hendricks,  of  Indiana,  42,  and  21  scatter- 
ing,^ and  for  Vice-President,  Wilson  286,  Brown 
47,  and  19  scattering.  The  votes  of  Louisiana 
and  Arkansas  were  rejected  by  concurrence  of 
both  Houses.' 

II.  At  this  session  appeared  the  first  case  of 
conflict  of  State  governments  in  the  South.  The 
reconstructed  State  constitutions,  in  order  to  guard 
against  intimidation  by  disfranchised  citizens,  had 
generally  provided  for  Returning  Boards,  usu- 
ally composed  of  three  State  officers  and  two 
citizens  specified  by  name  in  the  constitution.  The 
Returning  Board  was  empowered  to  canvass  the 
votes,  to  reject  the  votes  of  all  counties  (or  par- 
ishes) where  they  should  judge  force  or  fraud  had 

1  Tn  so  doing,  however,  it  followed  precedent. 

2  Greeley  died  November  29th,  1872,  and  the  Democratic  and  Liberal 
electors  were  compelled,  on  their  day  of  voting,  December  4th,  to  vote 
for  other  persons.  Three  electors  in  Georgia  voted  for  Horace  Greeley, 
but  their  votes  were  not  counted,  the  Houses  non-concurring. 

3  See  p.  238. 


1 873-]  Returning  Boards.  233 

been  used,  and  to  declare  the  results  of  all  elections. 
In  Louisiana  successive  removals  and  appointments 
of  State  officers  by  the  Governor,  for  the  purpose 
of  controlling  the  Returning  Board,  had  resulted  in 
the  formation  of  two  bodies,  each  claiming  to  be 
the  legitimate  Returning  Board.  Two  State  Legis- 
latures and  governments,  one  (Democratic)  headed 
by  Governor  John  McEnery,  the  other  (Republi- 
can) headed  by  Governor  W.  P.  Kellogg,  were  thus 
declared  elected.  Kellogg,  who  apparently  con- 
trolled the  Federal  District  Judge,  Durell,  brought 
suit  before  him  against  his  political  opponents,  and 
obtained  an  order,  illegitimately  given,  that  the 
Federal  marshal  should  seize  the  building  used  as 
a  State  House  and  prevent  tiie  meeting  of  the 
McEnery  Legislature.  Both  governments,  how- 
ever, were  inaugurated,  and  each  claimed  recogni- 
tion by  Congress.  The  Senate  committee  reported 
that  Durell's  conduct  was  most  reprehensible,  that 
Louisiana  had  no  real  government,  that  the  McEnery 
government  was  most  nearly  a  government  of  right, 
and  that  the  Kellogg  government  was  most  nearly 
a  government  in  fact.  A  bill  declaring  the  election 
of  November  4th,  1872,  null  and  void,  and  provid- 
ing for  a  new  election  under  the  direction  of  Judge 
Woods,  the  Federal  Circuit  Judge,  was  introduced 
in  the  Senate,  but  was  lost  by  a  close  vote.  Con- 
gress adjourned  March  3d,  1873,  ^^^  March  4th 
Grant  and  Wilson  were  sworn  into  office. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

TWENTY-SECOND    ADMINISTRATION,   1873-1877. 

TJlysses  S.  Grant,  President.  Henry  "Wilson,  Vice-President. 

XLiIIId  and  XlilVth  Congresses. 

Popular  vote  for  President  in  1872  :  Rep.  3,597,070, 
Dem.  2,834,079. 

I.  President  Grant's  Inaugural  stated  that, 
while  still  believing  in  the  advisability  of  the 
annexation  of  San  Domingo,  he  had  dropped 
the  project  since  its  rejection  by  the  Senate.  Dur- 
ing this  year  the  proposition  was  renewed  in  the 
form  of  an  application  by  San  Domingo  for  the 
establishment  of  a  protectorate  over  it  by  the 
United  States ;  but  shortly  afterward  President 
Baez,  who  had  been  the  chief  Dominican  advocate 
of  annexation,  was  driven  from  San  Domingo  by  a 
revolution,  and  this  unpopular  scheme  came  to  an 
end.  In  April  1873,  the  Supreme  Court,  in  the 
Slaughter-House  Cases,'  began  the  authorita- 
tive construction  of  the  XlVth  and  XVth  Amend- 
ments. The  opinion  of  the  court  held  that  these 
Amendments  only  placed  the  special  privileges  of 
citizens  of  the  United  States  under  the  protection 

I  16  Wall.,  36.  They  were  so  called  because  they  arose  from  the  incor- 
poration by  Louisiana  of  a  Slaughter-House  Company,  with  an  entire 
monopoly  of  the  business  in  New  Orleans  and  its  vicinity. 

234 


1 874.]  Louisiana,  235 

of  the  Federal  Constitution  and  Government ;  that 
the  powers  of  the  States  over  the  privileges  of  their 
own  citizens  had  not  been  changed  ;  and  that  the 
great  objects  of  the  Amendments  were  the  freedom 
and  protection  of  the  former  slave  race. 

2,  Congress  met  December  ist,  1873,  the  Repub- 
XLIIId  Congress,     lican    majority  being   con- 
ist  Session.  tinned    in   both    branches.' 

In  the  House,  Speaker  Blaine  was  re-elected.  The 
increase  of  pay  to  members  of  Congress  at  the 
preceding  Congress  was  repealed.  A  bill  which 
purported  to  ''  fix  the  amount  of  United  States 
notes,"  but  which  increased  their  total  amount, 
was  passed  by  both  Houses,  but  was  vetoed  by  the 
President  and  failed  to  become  law.  The  bill  for 
the  establishment  of  a  republican  form  of  govern- 
ment in  Louisiana^  was  again  introduced  in  the 
Senate,  but  came,  to  no  final  action.  Congress 
adjourned  June  23d,  1874.  In  1867  a  secret  order, 
known  as  Patrons  of  Husbandry,  had  been 
formed  in  Washington,  and  its  subordinate  lodges, 
or  Granges,'  had  since  spread  all  over  the  country. 
Its  object  was  co-operation  among  farmers  in  pur- 
chasing and  in  other  business  interests.  In  its 
nature  it  was  not  political,  but  the  high  freight 
rates  of  Western  railroads  brought  them  into  con- 
flicts with  its  members,  which  colored  the  politics 
of  Western  States  during  the  years  1873  ^^^  1874, 

I  Senate,  50  Rep.,  24  Dem.  and  Lib.;  House,  198  Rep  ,  93  Dem.and  Lib. 
a  See  p.  233.  3  Hence,  its  members  were  often  called  Grangers, 


236  American  Politics.  [1874 

and  led  to  several  unsuccessful  attempts  to  induce 
Congress  to  pass  transportation  laws  for  the  regu- 
lation of  inter-State  commerce  and  freight  rates. 

3.  During  this  and  the  subsequent  four  years, 
perjury  became  so  fundamental  a  feature  in  the 
politics  of  Louisiana  that  it  is  extremely  difficult 
to  give  any  exact  account  of  the  continuing  diffi- 
culties in  that  State.'  It  seems  certain,  on  the  one 
hand,  that  the  Democrats,  or  McEnery  party,  had 
resolved  themselves  into  a  "  white  man's  party," 
and  that  outrages  and  massacres  of  negroes,  such 
iis  those  at  Colfax  and  Coushatta,  had  become  a 
recognized  factor  in  politics  ;  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  that  the  Kellogg,  or  Republican,  government 
was  sustained  only  by  the  decisions  of  a  Federal 
judge  of  very  doubtful  character,  by  the  consequent 
support  of  Federal  troops,  by  the  scandalous  exe- 
cution of  the  registration  laws,  and  by  the  reckless 
counting  of  a  partisan  Returning  Board.  In  brief, 
tlie  contest  lay  between  force  and  fraud  for  the 
control  of  the  State.  September  14th,  1874,  the 
McEnery  party  suddenly  rose  in  arms,  seized  the 
State  offices,  and  forced  the  Kellogg  government 
to  take  refuge  in  the  Custom  House.  On  the 
same  day  Kellogg  called  upon  the  President  for 
Federal  troops,  which  were  furnished  to  him.^    The 

1  The  fairest  account  available  has  been  followed,  the  report  of  the  sub- 
committee of  the  House  of  Representatives,  consisting  of  two  Republicans 
and  one  Democrat,  January  14th,  1875. 

2  This  was  justified  by  the  President  and  his  supporters  under  Art.  IV., 
§  4,  of  thv.  Constitution  (see  p.  313);  his  opponents  generally  admitted  th« 


1 875-]  Louisiana,  237 

McEnery  government  refused  to  resist  Federal 
authority,  and  the  Kellogg  government  was  rein- 
stalled at  once.  In  January,  1875,  the  Legislature 
was  organized.  The  McEnery  party,  in  a  hasty 
and  disorderly  fashion,  seated  their  Representatives 
from  contested  districts,  gained  control  of  the 
House,  and  elected  the  Speaker,  whereupon  Kellogg 
sent  United  States  soldiers,  under  General  de 
Trobriand,  who  turned  out  the  members  just 
seated.  The  Kellogg  party,  then  having  a  majority, 
elected  their  Speaker,  the  McEnery  party  with- 
drew, and  again  two  Legislatures  were  organized.^ 
4.  Congress  met  December  7th,  1874.  The 
XLIIId  Congress,  President's  Message  dealt 
2d  Session.  largely    with    the    case    of 

Louisiana,  and  his  Special  Message  of  January 
13th,  1875,  went  still  more  fully  into  the  case, 
defending  his  action  in  it,  and  appealed  to  Con- 
gress to  take  some  action  which  would  relieve  him 
from  the  "  exceedingly  unpalatable  "  duty  of  sup- 
porting Southern  State  governments  by  the  use  of 
Federal  troops.  At  the  close  of  the  Session,  there- 
fore, by  resolution,  the  House  endorsed  the  Kellogg 
government,  and  the  Senate  approved  the  Presi- 
dent's course  in  Louisiana.  An  Act  for  the 
Resumption  of  Specie  Payments  was  passed 

justification  so  far,  but  denied  that  a  political  struggle  in  the  Legislature 
was  a  case  of  "  domestic  violence  "  to  be  settled  by  Federal  troops. 

I  The  difficulty  was  left,  as  far  as  regarded  the  Legislature,  to  W.  A. 
Wheeler  (afterward  Vice-President),  and,  after  his  "adjustment"  of  it, 
the  party  conflict  smouldered  u»til  the  summer  of  1876,  when  it  was 
renewed. 


238  American  Politics,  [1875 

which  provided  that  on  and  after  January  ist,  1879, 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  should  redeem 
United  States  legal-tender  notes  in  coin  ;  but  it 
left  open  the  question  whether  these  legal-tender 
notes,  up  to  $300,000,000,  should  be  reissued  after 
redemption.  Senator  Sumner's  Supplementary 
Civil  Rights  Bill  became  law.'  A  large  part  of 
the  Session  was  taken  up  in  considering  the  mode 
of  election  of  the  President  and  Vice-President. 
A  great  many  of  the  possible  dangers  and  difficul- 
ties, as  they  occurred  in  1876-77,  were  already 
plainly  foreseen  and  discussed  in  the  debates,  but 
Congress  did  nothing  to  avoid  them.  Senator 
Morton,  of  Indiana,^  introduced  an  Amendment  to 
the  Constitution,  providing  for  the  general  choice 
of  electors  by  districts,  and  a  resolution  to  abolish 
the  Twenty-Second  Joint  Rule/  under  which 
the  counting  of  electoral  votes  had  been  conducted 
since  1865,  but  neither  was  adopted.  Congress 
adjourned  March  4th,  1875.  During  the  year  an 
extensive  Whiskey  Ring  was  unearthed  in  the 
West  ;  it  was  an  association,  or  series  of  associa- 
tions, of  distillers  and  Federal  officials  for  the 
purpose  of  defrauding  the  Government  of  a  large 

I  See  p.  227.  Senator  Sumner,  the  original  framer  of  the  bill,  had  died, 
March  nth,  1874. 

a  His  speeches  in  these  debates  are  almost  a  history  of  the  workings  of 
the  electoral  system  up  to  date. 

3  This,  a  rule  adopted  by  both  Houses,  February  6th,  1865,  provided  in 
effect  that  any  electoral  voie,  to  which  objection  should  be  made  by  any 
member,  should  only  be  counted  if  both  Houses  agreed  to  count  it:  a  non- 
concurrence,  therefore,  operated  as  a  rejection  of  the  vote  (see  p.  241). 


l875-]  State  Electiofts.  239 

amount  of  the  tax  imposed  on  distilled  spirits,  and, 
further,  of  employing  a  part  of  the  proceeds  in 
political  corruption.  On  the  trial  of  the  indict- 
ments a  number  of  Federal  officers  were  convicted, 
and  O.  E.  Babcock,  the  President's  private  secre- 
tary, was  acquitted. 

5.  In  the  South  the  Democrats,  generally  taking 
the  name  of  Conservatives,  had  by  this  time  gained 
control  of  all  the  State  governments  except  those 
of  South  Carolina,  Florida,  and  Louisiana.  In 
some  of  the  States  the  Republican  government  had, 
as  in  Louisiana,  called  upon  the  President  for  help 
before  surrendering  their  positions.  From  Arkan- 
sas calls  for  troops  had  been  made  by  Elisha 
Baxter,  April  19th,  1874,  and  by  Joseph  Brooks, 
April  20th,  each  claiming  to  be  the  legitimate 
Governor.  On  the  supersedure  of  both  of  them 
by  the  adoption  of  a  new  State  Constitution, 
October  13th,  1874,  V.  V.  Smith,  Baxter's  Lieuten- 
ant-Governor, claiming  to  be  Governor  by  Baxter's 
abdication,  called  upon  the  President  for  troops  ; 
but,  as  he  fled  the  State  immediately  afterward,  no 
answer  was  given.  In  Mississippi  the  Legislature 
called  upon  the  President  for  troops,  December 
i8th,  1874,  to  suppress  rioting  in  Warren  County, 
and  the  President  answered  by  a  proclamation 
warning  rioters  to  disperse.  The  call  for  troops 
was  repeated,  September  8th,  1875,  by  Governor 
A.  Ames,  but  was  refused.  The  Governor  was 
advised  to  assemble  the  Le^^islature  and  make  some 


240  American  Politics.  [1875 

effort  to  preserve  the  peace  of  his  own  State,  the 
President's  language  seeming  to  show  that  his 
patience  had  been  exhausted.* 

6.  The  State  elections  of  1874-75  and  the  elec- 
tions for  members  of  the  XLIVth  Congress,  to  meet 
in  December,  1875,  showed  a  sudden  and  remark- 
able change  of  political  sentiment.^  They  resulted 
in  the  almost  universal  defeat  of  Republican  can- 
didates for  State  officers,  even  Massachusetts  elect- 
ing a  Democratic  Governor,  and  the  election  of  a 
great  majority  of  Democrats  to  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives. The  Republicans  considered  the 
result  due  largely  to  the  violent  suppression  of  the 
colored  Republican  vote  in  the  South  ;  the  Demo- 
crats attributed  it  entirely  to  the  popular  disgust 
in  the  North  at  the  continuance  of  enforcement 
Acts  and  efforts  to  "  dragoon  "  the  South.  Both 
causes  seem  to  have  been  operative,  assisted  by  the 
financial  distress  which  began  to  be  felt  in  1873,  and 
which  is  always  apt  to  react  upon  the  popular  vote, 
to  the  prejudice  of  the  party  in  power. 

7.  Congress  met  December  6th,  1875,  with  a 
XLIVth  Congress,   Republican  majority  in  the 

1st    Session.         Senate    and   a    Democratic 


1  *'  The  whole  public  are  tired  out  with  these  annual  autumnal  out- 
breaks in  the  South,  and  the  gre  it  majority  are  ready  now  to  condemn  any 
interference  on  the  part  of  the  Government,  I  heartily  wish  that  peace 
and  good  order  may  be  restored  without  issuing  the  proclamation.  But  if 
it  is  issued,  I  shall  instruct  the  commander  of  the  forces  to  have  no  child's 
play." 

2  The  elections  were  popularly  called  the  "tidal  wave." 


1876.]  The  Centennial.  24I 

majority  in  the  House,^  where  M.  C.  Kerr,  of  In- 
diana, was  chosen  Speaker.  The  President's  Mes- 
sage was  devoted  mainly  to  foreign  affairs  and  to  a 
natural  recognition  of  the  great  material  progress 
made  by  the  nation  during  its  first  century  of  exis- 
tence. The  Session  was  marked  by  an  evident 
increase  of  anxiety  as  to  the  possible  occurrence  of 
some  occasion  for  dispute  between  the  Democratic 
House  and  the  Republican  Senate  about  the  result 
of  the  impending  Presidential  election  ;  but  party 
jealousy,  and  fear  of  losing  any  party  advantage 
from  the  Southern  situation,  prevented  any  remedial 
action.  Morton's  Amendment  to  the  Consti- 
tution,"^  and  several  other  Amendments,  with  the 
same  general  object,  were  introduced,  but  not 
passed.  Morton's  bill  to  provide  for  the  counting 
of  the  electoral  votes  met  with  the  same  fate.  The 
Senate  abolished  the  Twenty-Second  Joint  Rule, 
so  that  the  electoral  count  was  now  left  without  any 
provisions  whatever  for  its  government.  The  so- 
called  Blaine  Amendment,  prohibiting  the  ap- 
propriation of  public  school  money  by  any  State  to 
sectarian  schools,  passed  the  House  but  did. not 
secure  a  two-thirds  vote  in  the  Senate.^  An  unlim- 
ited Amnesty  Bill  failed  to  secure  a  two-thirds 
vote  in  the  House.  A  bill  to  reduce  the  President's 
salary  to  $25,000  yearly  after  March  4th,  1877, 
passed  both  Houses,  but  was  vetoed  and  failed  to 

1  Senate,  42  Rep.,  29  Dem.,  2  Ind.  ;  House,  182  Dem.,  no  Rep. 

2  See  p.  238.  :*  The  vote  stood  28  to  16  in  favor. 

16 


242  American  Politics.  [.'^^7^ 

become  law.  An  appropriation  of  $1,500,000  was 
made  to  the  Centennial  Exhibition  at  Philadelphia. 
The  Secretary  of  War,  W.  W.  Belknap,  was  im- 
peached by  the  House  on  a  charge  of  having 
received  bribes  for  the  appointment  of  a  post-trader 
at  Fort  Sill.  The  general  vote  in  the  Senate  was 
36  to  25  for  conviction,'  and  as  this  was  not  two- 
thirds  he  was  acquitted.  Congress  adjourned 
August  15th,  1876.  The  end  of  the  first,  and  the 
beginning  of  the  second,  century  of  the  separate 
national  existence  of  the  United  States  was  marked 
by  the  opening  of  the  Centennial  Exhibition 
at  Philadelphia,^  and  by  an  unusually  general  cele- 
bration, July  4th.  Colorado  became  a  State  of 
the  Union  August  ist,  1876. 

8.  The  Independent  National  Convention 
met  at  Indianapolis,  May  17th,  1876.  Its  platform 
demanded  the  repeal  of  the  Act  for  resumption  of 
specie  payments,  and  the  issue  of  United  States 
notes  ("  greenbacks  "^),  convertible  into  bonds  on 
demand,  as  the  currency  of  the  country.  It  nomi- 
nated Peter  Cooper,  of  New  York,  for  President,  and 
Samuel  F.  Cary,  of  Ohio,  for  Vice-President.*  The 
Republican  National  Convention  met  at  Cin- 
cinnati, June  14th,  and  adopted  a  platform  which 

I  He  had  anticipated  impeachment  by  resigning  in  the  forenoon  of  the 
day  on  which  he  was  impeached,  and  most  of  the  Senators  who  voted  Not 
Guilty  stated  that  they  did  so  on  the  ground  that  he  was  then  a  private 
citizen  and  not  subject  to  impeachment.  2  May  loth,  1876. 

3  Hence  this  was  usually  called  the  Greenback  Party. 

4  Newton  Booth,  of  California,  was   first  nominated  for  Vice-Presid -nt 
but  declined. 


1876.]  Presidential  Nominations.  243 

reviewed  the  party's  past  achievements,  charged 
the  Democratic  party  with  treason,  imbecility,  false- 
hood, and  subservience  to  former  rebels,  com- 
mended the  resumption  of  specie  payments,  and 
demanded  the  immediate  and  vigorous  exercise  of 
Federal  powers  to  secure  the  rights  of  American 
citizens  everywhere  throughout  the  country.  Much 
excitement  had  been  caused  by  the  alleged  design 
of  President  Grant  to  secure  for  himself  a  Third 
Term,  but  his  name  was  not  presented  to  the 
Convention  for  the  Presidential  nomination.  On 
the  first  six  ballots  James  G.  Blaine,  of  Maine,  led 
all  the  other  candidates  ;  on  the  seventh  ballot 
Rutherford  B.  Hayes,  of  Ohio,  was  nominated  by 
384  votes,  to  351  for  Blaine  and  21  for  B.  H.  Bris- 
tow  of  Kentucky.  William  A.  Wheeler,  of  New 
York,  was  nominated  for  Vice-President.  The 
Democratic  National  Convention  met  at  St. 
Louis,  June  28th,  and  adopted  a  platform  entirely 
filled  with  denunciation  of  the  Republican  party 
for  corruption,  mismanagement,  personal  govern- 
ment and  sectional  hatred,  and  by  demands  for 
reform  ;  included  in  these  was  a  demand  for  the 
repeal  of  the  specie  resumption  Act  until  proper 
preparation  should  be  made  for  its  successful  en- 
forcement. On  the  second  Presidential  ballot, 
Samuel  J.  Tilden  had  535  votes  to  203  for  all  others, 
and  was  nominated.  His  leading  competitor, 
Thomas  A.  Hendricks,  of  Indiana,  was  nominated 
for  Vice-President. 


244  American  Politics.  [.^^7^ 

9.  The  nomination  of  Hayes  sensibly  strength- 
ened the  Republican  party.  A  strong  section  of  its 
members  had  held  a  preliminary  meeting,  May  15th/ 
and  resolved  to  su[)[)ort  no  candidate  not  pledged 
to  Civil  Service  Reform.  Their  warm  support  was  at 
once  gained  by  the  unexpected  emphasis  with  which 
the  nominee  advocated  the  cessation  of  the  sale 
of  appointments  to  office  for  party  services.  The 
Democratic  chances  were  increased  by  the  evident 
certainty  of  the  choice  of  Democratic  electors  in 
all  of  the  Southern  States  excepting  three.  In  one 
of  these,  South  Carolina,  the  Legislature  had  long 
been  extravagant  and  corrupt,  and  the  Presidential 
campaign  was  complicated  with  a  final  and  desper- 
ate effort  by  the  whites  to  secure  control  of  the 
State  government.  In  the  course  of  it  a  massacre 
of  a  negro  miUtia  force  at  Hamburgh,^  and  another 
at  EUenton,  induced  a  call  for  Federal  troops  by 
the  Governor,  and  these  were  placed  at  his  disposal 
by  the  President.  The  Presidential  election 
took  place  November  7th,  1876.  Democratic  elec- 
tors were  chosen  by  Connecticut,  New  York,  New 
Jersey,  and  Indiana  in  the  North,  and  by  all  the 
Southern  States  except  South  Carolina,  Florida, 
and  Louisiana  ;  Republican  electors  were  chosen 
by   South  Carolina'   in   the  South,  and    by  all   the 

1  The  so-called  Fifth  Avenue  Hotel  Conference. 

2  July  9th. 

3  This  State  was  also  claimed  at  first  liy  the  Democrats,  but  their  mem- 
bers of  the  Congressional  investigating  committee  agreed  that  the  Slate 
had  chosen  Republican  electors. 


18/6.]  Presidential  Election.  245 

Northern  States  except  those  named  above.  The 
undisputed  results  '  of  the  election  were  therefore 
184  electoral  votes  for  Tilden  and  Hendricks,  and 
172  for  Hayes  and  Wheeler,  and  the  whole  result 
of  the  election  hinged  upon  the  final  declaration  of 
the  results  in  Florida  and  Louisiana,  that  is,  upon 
the  decisions  of  the  Returning  Boards  of  those 
States,  and  upon  the  disputed  vote  of  Oregon. 

10.  As  soon  as  the  state  of  affairs  in  the  doubt- 
ful States  was  discovered,  a  large  number  of  promi- 
nent citizens  from  the  North  went  to  the  Slate 
capitals  to  oversee  the  count,  by  invitation  of 
President  Grant  and  of  the  Democratic  National 
Committee.  The  four  electoral  votes  of  Florida 
were  decided  by  the  Returning  Board  to  be  Repub- 
lican by  a  majority  of  926  ;  this  result  was  reached 
by  casting  out  the  votes  of  various  precincts  and 
counties.  The  State  Supreme  Court  then  ordered 
the  Board  to  declare  the  result  of  "  the  face  of  the 
returns,"^  without   casting   out   any.     The  Board 

1  Tlie  Republicans  alleged  that  very  many  of  the  Southern  electoral 
votes  had  been  obtained  for  the  Democratic  candidates  by  the  violent  sup- 
pression of  the  colored  vote,  but  did  not  formally  dispute  the  count  of 
these  votes.  The  Democrats  disputed  the  count  of  many  individual 
Republican  electoral  votes  in  the  North,  on  the  ground  that  the  electors 
who  cast  them  were  Federal  office-holders  ;  but  in  these  cases  the 
ineligible  electors  regularly  resigned  before  acting  and  were  re-chosen  by 
the  electoral  colleges  to  fill  the  resulting  vacancies.  The  statement  above 
is  therefore  made  as  "  undisputed."  It  does  not  include  the  single  vote 
of  Oregon. 

2  What  the  real  "  face  of  the  returns  "  was  is  doubtful.  Those  acknowl- 
edged by  the  Board  and  those  claimed  by  the  Democrats  agree  very 
closely,  except  as  to  Baker  County.  From  this  county  two  returns  were 
sent  :  (i)  130  Rep.,  89  Dem  ,  Rep.  maj.  41  :  and  (2)  143  Rep.,  238  Dem,, 


246  American  Politics,  \y'^7^ 

again  met,  cast  out  the  votes  of  certain  other  pre- 
cincts and  counties,  and  declared  a  Republican 
majority  of  206.  Before  this  was  done,  however, 
the  day  appointed  for  the  voting  of  the  electors  had 
come,  and  the  Republican  electors  met  and  voted. 
In  Louisiana  the  Democratic  electors  protested 
without  effect  against  the  refusal  of  the  Returning 
Board  to  add  a  Democrat  to  their  number,  as  the 
law  required,  and  against  their  refusal  to  canvass 
all  the  votes  in  public.  After  a  three-weeks'  ses- 
sion, and  many  changes  in  the  returns,  the  Board 
declared  the  Republican  electors  successful  by  an 
average  majority  of  about  4000  ;  the  Democrats 
claimed  8000  majority  on  the  face  of  the  returns.' 
McEnery,  claiming  to  be  Governor,  gave  the 
Democratic  electors  a  certificate  of  election  ;  in 
Florida  the  Attorney-General,  as  one  of  the  Return- 
ing Board,  signed  the  Democratic  certificate.  In 
both  States  the  Republican  Governor  signed  the 
certificates  of  the  Republican  electors.  In  Ore- 
gon the  three  Republican  electors  had  a  majority, 
but,  on  the  claim  that  one  of  them  was  a  Federal 
office-holder  and  ineligible,  the  Democratic  Gover- 
nor gave  a  certificate  of  the  election  of  one  Demo- 


Dem.  maj.  95.  The  former  was  taken  by  the  Board,  while  the  latter  was 
claimed  by  the  Democrats.  As  the  sum  total  of  the  votes  of  all  the  other 
counties,  as  acknowledged  by  both  parties,  is  almost  an  exact  tie  on  the 
face  of  the  returns,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  gist  of  the  difficulty  lies  in  the 
double  return  from  Baker  County. 

I  (Returns,  average)  Rep.   75,759,   Dem.  83,635,  Dem.  maj.,  7876;  (Re* 
turning  Board,  average)  Rep.  74,436,  Dem.  70,505,  Rep.  maj.  3931. 


1 877-]  Electoral  Commission.  247 

cratic  and  two  Republican  electors.  The  three 
Republican  electors  were  certified  by  the  Secretary 
of  State,  who  was  the  canvassing  officer  of  the 
State  by  statute. 

II.  Congress   met    December   5th,    1876.      The 
XLIVth    Congress,     President's   Message   de- 
2d  Session.  precated  harsh  judgment 

for  any  mistakes  of  judgment  which  he  had  made 
in  his  two  terms  of  office,  and  attributed  them 
mainly  to  the  subordinates  whose  appointment  had 
been  forced  upon  him  by  Congressmen.  In  the 
House,  S.  J.  Randall,  of  Pennsylvania,  was  chosen 
Speaker  in  place  of  Speaker  Kerr,  who  had  died 
during  the  summer.  The  session  was  almost 
entirely  taken  up  by  the  Disputed  Presidential 
Election.  It  was  evident  that  neither  House 
would  consent  to  the  adoption  of  a  joint  rule  for 
the  count  which  should  seem  to  operate  against  the 
candidates  of  its  majority.  Extreme  Republicans 
were  beginning  to  advance  the  idea  that  the  Vice- 
President,  who  was  to  open  the  certificates,  was 
also  to  decide  between  two  returns  ;  extreme 
Democrats  argued  the  right  of  the  House  to  decide 
when  the  emergency  had  arrived  in  which  it  was  to 
elect  a  President.  As  a  compromise,  the  Elec- 
toral Commission  was  created  by  act  of  January 
29th,  1877  ;  it  was  to  consist  of  five  members 
chosen  by  the  House,  five  by  the  Senate,  and  five 
Justices  of  the  Supreme  Court.  Double  returns, 
and  all  returns  to  which  objection  should  be  made, 


248  American  Politics.  ly'^Jl 

were  to  be  referred  to  this  commission,  whose  deci- 
sion was  to  be  final  unless  reversed  by  the  vote  of 
both  Houses.  The  general  rule  held  by  the  Com- 
mission was  that  it  was  only  empowered  to  canvass 
electoral  votes,  not  popular  votes,  and  to  decide 
whether  the  Governor  had  certified  those  electors 
who  had  been  declared  elected  by  the  canvassing 
authority  of  the  State.  It  thus  ascertained  that  in 
Louisiana  and  Florida  the  Governors  had  certified 
the  legitimate  electors,  while  in  Oregon  the  Gover- 
nor had  not.  In  all  these  cases  the  House  voted 
to  reject,  and  the  Senate  to  sustain,  the  Commis- 
sion's decision,  and  the  decision  was  therefore  sus- 
tained in  favor  of  the  Republican  electors.  In  the 
case  of  South  Carolina,  and  in  those  of  electors 
objected  to  as  Federal  office-holders,  the  Commis- 
sion also  decided  in  favor  of  the  Republican 
electors,  and  the  decision  was  not  reversed  by 
concunent  vote  of  both  Houses.  All  the  thirteen 
doubtful  votes'  thus  fell  to  the  Republican  candi- 
dates, and  the  result  was  declared'  to  be  185  votes 
for  Hayes  and  Wheeler,  and  184  votes  for  Tilden 
and  Hendricks.  Hayes  and  Wheeler  were  there- 
fore declared  elected.  March  3d,  1877,  Congress 
adjourned,  and  March  4th,  Hayes  and  Wheeler  were 
sworn  into  office. 


I  Florida  4,  Louisiana  8,  Oregon  i. 
s  After  4  o'clock  in  the  mf^-nmn  of 


March  2d. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

TWENTY-THIRD    ADMINISTRATION,   1877-1881. 

Rutherford  B.  Hayes,  Presi-  William  A.  "Wheeler,  Vice 

dent.  Piesident. 

XX.Vth  and  XLVIth  Congresses. 

Popular  vote  for  President  in  1876  :  Dcui.  4,284,757, 
Rep.  4,033,950.' 

I.  In  Florida  the  State  Supreme  Court  had  per- 
sisted in  compelling  a  count  upon  the  face  of  the 
returns  of  the  votes  for  State  officers,  and  the 
Democratic  State  government  was  thus  finally 
declared  elected  and  inaugurated,  although  the 
Returning  Board  had  at  first  given  the  election  to 
the  Republican  candidates.  In  South  Carolina 
and  Louisiana  President  Hayes,  soon  after  his 
inauguration,  ordered  the  Federal  troops  to  be 
withdrawn,^  and  the  Democratic  State  governments 
at  once  took  possession  without  resistance.  It  was 
charged  that  the  President  had  thereby  impeached 
his  own  title  to  the  Presidency,  which  "  rested  upon 
the  action  of  the  same  Returning  Boards  which 
had  declared  the   Republican   Governors  elected." 


1  In  Florida  and  Louisiana  the  Returning  Bo?rd  count  has  been  taken. 

2  Similar  orders  were  given  in  March  by  President  Grant,  but  were  not 
executed. 

249 


250  American  Politics.  [1877 

It  must  be  noted,  however,  that  electors  are  to  be 
chosen  "  in  such  manner  as  the  Legislature  of  the 
State  may  direct,"  and  that  the  power  of  a  Legis- 
lature to  commit  the  choice  of  electors  to  a  Return- 
ing  Board  may  be  admitted  without  admitting  its 
power  to  delegate  the  choice  of  State  officers  to 
the  same  hands.  During  the  summer  extensive 
Railroad  Strikes  and  other  disorders  caused 
considerable  alarm  and  loss  of  property  and  life, 
but  were  successfully  suppressed  by  the  State 
authorities,  assisted,  wherever  necessary,  by  United 
States  troops. 

2.  Congress    met    October    15th,'    1877,    having 
XLVth    Congress,     been    called    to    an    early 
1st  Session.  Session  by  a  proclamation 

of  the  President,  in  consequence  of  the  failure  of 
the  preceding  Congress  to  pass  the  appropriation 
for  the  army.  The  Senate  was  still  Republican 
and  the  House  Democratic.  Li  the  House  Speaker 
Randall  was  re-elected  by  149  .votes  to  132  for 
James  A.  Garfield,  of  Ohio.  The  most  striking 
action  of  the  Session  was  the  passage  of  the  Bland 
Silver  Bill.  The  Act  of  July  14th,  1870,  to 
refund  the  national  debt,  had  made  all  bonds 
issued  under  it  payable  in  "coin";  and  the  Act  of 
February  12th,  1873,  ^^^  **  demonetized"  the  silver 
dollar,  that  is,  had  dropped  it  from  the  list  of 
United  States  coins.  Since  that  time  the  value  of 
silver,    as   compared    with    gold,    had    been    very 

1  Senate,  Rep.  39,  Dem.  36,  Ind.  i  ;  House,  Dem.  153,  Rep.  140. 


18/8.]  Bland  Silver  Bill.  251 

steadily  falling,  and  a  strong  feeling  had  grown  up 
in  both  parties  that  the  silver  dollar  should  be 
restored  to  the  list  of  coins  and  used,  at  least  in 
part,  for  the  payment  of  bonds.  The  Bland  Bill 
provided  for  the  resumption  of  the  coinage  of  the 
silver  dollar  of  412^  grains  (worth  then  about  92 
cents),  made  it  a  legal  tender  for  public  and  private 
debts,  and  directed  its  coinage  at  the  rate  of  not 
less  than  $2,000,000  or  more  than  $4,000,000 
monthly.  It  was  vetoed,  and  was  passed  over  the 
veto  by  heavy  majorities.  An  Act  was  passed  for- 
bidding the  further  retirement  of  United  States 
notes.  An  Army  Appropriation  Bill  was  passed 
containing  a  proviso  that  it  should  not  be  lawful 
to  employ  any  part  of  the  army  as  ts. posse  coniitatus^ 
except  as  expressly  authorized  by  the  Constitution 
or  by  Act  of  Congress.  A  House  committee,  com- 
monly known  as  the  Potter  Committee,*  was 
appointed  to  investigate  the  alleged  frauds  in  the 
Southern  States.  Congress  adjourned  June  20th, 
1878.  An  unexpected  result  of  the  Potter  Com- 
Miittee's  investigation  was  the  discovery  of  a  num- 
\)Ki\  of  Cipher  Telegrams'"  from  persons  nearly 
connected  with  Mr.  Tilden,  having  for  their  object 
the  bribery  of  the  Returning  Boards.  Mr.  Tilden 
denied  that  he  was  a  party  to  these  negotiations. 

3.   From    the    beginning  of   his  Administration, 
President  Hayes  had  not  the  hearty  support  of  any 

1  So-called  from  its  chairman,  Clarkson  N.  Potter,  of  New  York. 

2  These  were  mainly  translated  in  the  office  of  the  New  York  Tribune. 


252  American  Politics.  [^878 

party  in  Congress.  To  many  of  the  Republicans, 
who  had  grown  up  under  the  enforcement  system, 
his  withdrawal  of  Federal  troops  from  Southern 
States,  and  his  efforts  to  conciliate  the  South  in 
other  ways,  seemed  to  be  weak,  wavering,  and 
''Sunday-school  politics";  very  great  feeling  was 
excited  among  the  Democrats  by  his  appointment 
of  members  of  the  Returning  Board  to  Federal 
offices  ;  his  partial  elforts  to  free  himself  from  the 
control  which  Congressmen  had  gradually  acquired 
over  api)ointments  deprived  him  of  much  of  a 
President's  usual  influence  over  Congress  ;  and  the 
sudden  rise  to  prominence  of  financial  questions, 
on  which  neither  party  was  thoroughly  united,  left 
him  without  any  general  or  coherent  party  support. 
Many  Administration  measures  were  defeated, 
and  others  were  only  carried  by  Demcjcratic  votes. 
Nevertheless,  President  Hayes's  term  of  office  was 
of  incalculable  benefit  to  the  country  as  a  breathing- 
spell,  and  a  relief  from  the  almost  intolerable  vio- 
l(ince  of  party  contest.  During  these  two  years 
tiie  Greenback  or  National  Party,  which  was 
mainly  opposed  to  the  proposed  resumption  of 
specie  payments,  had  largely  increased  its  popular 
votes.  l\\  1876  it  had  polled  80,000  votes;  in  the 
State  elections  of  1878  this  was  increased  to  over 
1,000,000,  Specie  payments  for  United  States 
notes  were  resumed  without  difficulty^  January  ist, 
1879. 
4.  Congress  met  December  2d,  1878.     The  Presi- 


1 879']  Hayes'  Adniinistration.  253 

XLVth  Congress,  dent's  Message  urged  upon 
2d  Session.  the   attention   of  Congress 

the  alleged  continuance  of  intimidation  of  negro 
voters  in  the  South.  The  only  important  legisla- 
tion of  the  Session  was  an  Act  authorizing  the 
refunding  of  the  national  debt  at  four  per  cent, 
interest,  and  an  Act  giving  arrears  of  pensions  to 
those  who  had  not  yet  filed  applications.  Con- 
gress adjourned  March  4th,  1879,  without  passing 
rhe  Army  Appropriation  Bill,  owing  to  an 
endeavor  by  the  House  to  add  as  a  ''  rider"  '  to  it 
a  bill  to  repeal  the  general  election  law.^ 

5.  Congress  met  March  i8th,  1879,  having  been 
XLVIth  Congress,     summoned  to  an  extra  Ses- 

Extra  Session.  sion  by  a  Proclamation  of 
the  President.  Both  branches  had  Democratic 
majorities,^  and  in  the  House  Speaker  Randall  was 
re-elected.  The  Warner  Silver  Bill,  provid- 
ing for  the  unlimited  coinage  of  silver,  was  passed 
by  the  House,  but  the  Senate  Finance  Committee 
refused  to  report  it.  The  main  business  of  the 
Session  was  with  the  Appropriation  Bills,  to  all 
of  which  the  Dem.ocratic  majority  added  "  riders  " 
for  the  purpose  of  carrying  out  a  reduction  of 
Federal  power.  To  the  Army  Bill  a  rider  was 
added  repealing  the  existing  permission  to  the 
army  to  "keep  the  peace  at  the  polls";  to  the 
Legislative   Bill  was  added  another,  repealing  the 

I  See  p.  158.  2  See  p.  228. 

3  Senate,  Dem.  42,  Rep.  33,  Tnd.  i;  House,  Dem.  i4g.  Rep.  130,  Nat.  14. 


254  American  Politics.  [1880 

authority  giving  to  Federal  supervisors  to  count 
the  votes  at  Congressional  elections,  and  to  Federal 
marshals  to  arrest  at  the  polls  ;  and  to  the  Judic- 
iary Bill  was  added  another,  forbidding  the  pay- 
ment of  Federal  marshals  for  "  services  in  con- 
nection with  elections."  All  these  were  opposed 
by  the  Republicans  as  efforts  to  coerce  a  co-ordi- 
nate branch  of  the  Government  by  refusing  appro- 
priations, were  vetoed  by  the  President,  and  failed 
to  become  law.  Having  finally  passed  the  Appro- 
priation Bills  without  riders,  Congress  adjourned 
July  ist,  1879.  During  the  summer  a  considerable 
Negro  Exodus  took  place  from  the  South  to 
the  Northwest.  It  was  ascribed  by  Republicans  to 
Southern  ill-treatment  of  negroes,  and  by  Demo- 
crats to  the  operations  of  railroad  agents. 

6.  Congress    met    December    1st,    1879.      The 
XLVIth  Congress,   President's     Message     ad- 
ist  Session.  vised  Congress  not  to  leg- 

islate further  at  present  in  regard  to  the  coinage, 
recommended  the  retirement  of  legal  tenders,  and 
urged  the  necessity  of  reform  in  the  civil  service. 
No  important  political  action  was  taken  except  the 
passage  of  a  law  to  prevent  the  use  of  the  army  to 
keep  the  peace  at  the  polls,  but  with  the  proviso 
that  it  should  not  be  construed  to  prevent  the  con- 
stitutional use  of  the  army  to  suppress  domestic 
violence  in  a  State.  The  "  riders  "  of  the  last  Ses- 
sion were  again  added  to  Appropriation  and  Defi- 
ciency Bills,  but  were  again  vetoed   and   failed  to 


l88o.]  Presidential  Eleetion.  255 

become  law.  The  Democratic  opposition  to  the 
General  Election  Law  was  very  much  weak- 
ened by  a  Supreme  Court  decision  during  the  Ses- 
sion, upholding  the  constitutionality  of  the  law. 
Congress  adjourned  June  i6th,  1880.  Not  one 
effective  step  had  yet  been  taken,  by  statute  or 
amendment,  to  avoid  the  recurrence  of  a  disputed 
electoral  count  such  as  that  of  1876.  The  Repub- 
licans were  unwilling  to  entrust  the  count  entirely 
to  the  control  of  a  Democratic  Congress,  and 
neither  party  was  willing  to  entrust  the  final  and 
absolute  decision  upon  the  validity  of  a  State's 
electoral  votes  to  the  highest  judicial  authority  of 
the  State  itself.'  The  attempted  counting-out  of 
the  Republican  majority  in  the  Legislature  of 
Maine,  by  the  Governor  and  Council,  in  the  win- 
ter of  1878-79,  had  emphasized  the  danger  by 
showing  the  possibility  of  double  returns  from 
some  Northern  State  ;  but  nothing  was  done. 

7.  The  Republican  National  Convention 
met  June  5th,  1880,  at  Chicago.  The  Grant  ma- 
jority in  the  State  Conventions  of  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  and'  Illinois  had  ordered  their  dele- 
gates to  cast  the  entire  vote  of  their  States  for  ex- 
President  Grant,  without  regard  to  the  preferences 
of  individual  districts.  The  Convention,  however, 
refused  to  recognize  the  unit  rule,  and  absolved 
the  delegates  from  obedience  to  it.     The  platform 

I  This,  the  proposition  of  Senator  Edmunds,  of  Vermont,  would  seem 
to  be  in  strict  pursuance  of  the  intention  of  the  electoral  system. 


256  American  Politics.  [1880 

detailed  the  party's  achievements  in  the  past,  de- 
nounced the  Democratic  party  and  the  "  Solid 
South,"  and  favored  a  protective  tariff,  the  protec- 
tion of  all  citizens  in  all  their  rights  by  Federal 
power,  and  the  restriction  of  Chinese  immigration. 
On  the  thirty-sixth  ballot,  June  8th,  James  A.  Gar- 
field, of  Ohio,  was  nominated  for  President.  His 
nomination  was  the  result  of  the  sudden  union  of  the 
Blaine,  Sherman,  and  other  delegates  against  those 
delegates,  about  306  in  number,  who  voted  steadily 
for  Grant  to  the  end.  Chester  A.  Arthur,  of  New 
York,  was  nominated  for  Vice-President.  The 
Greenback-Labor  National  Convention  met 
at  Chicago,  June  9th,  and  adopted  a  platform 
which  claimed  for  the  Government  the  entire  con- 
trol of  the  issue  of  money,  and  condemned  the 
grant  of  any  such  power  to  corporations,  the  con- 
tinuance of  grants  of  lands  to  railroads,  and  the 
immigration  of  Chinese.  It  nominated  James  B. 
Weaver,  of  Iowa,  for  President,  and  B.  J.  Cham- 
bers, of  Texas,  for  Vice  President.  The  Demo- 
cratic National  Convention  met  at  Cincinnati, 
June  2 2d,  and  adopted  a  strict  construction  plat- 
form. It  called  for  home  rule,  honest  money 
(''  gold  and  silver,  and  paper  convertible  into  coin 
on  demand  "  '),  a  revenue  tariff,  and  permission  to 
purchase  ships  abroad,  and  denounced  the  "  fraud 
of  1876-77"  and  the  Administration's  "claim  of  a 

I  The  latter  part  of  this  definition  would  hardly  have  been  accepted  by 
the  original,  or  Jeffersonian,  Democracy. 


i88o.]  Presidential  Election.  257 

right  to  surround  the  ballot-boxes  with  troops."  It 
nominated  Winfield  S.  Hancock,  of  Pennsylvania, 
for  President,  on  the  second  ballot,  and  William 
H.  Englisii,  of  Indiana,  for  Vice-President.  In  the 
Presidential  election  in  November,  Democratic 
electors  were  chosen  by  all  the  Southern  States, 
and  by  New  Jersey,  California,*  and  Nevada  in  the 
North  ;  all  the  other  States  chose  Republican  elec- 
tors. On  the  entire  popular  vote  the  Republicans 
had  a  slight  plurality,  neither  party  having  a  ma- 
jority. The  Greenback  vote  did  not  affect  the  re- 
sult, except  in  California,  Indiana,  and  New  Jer- 
Sc!y,  where  it  prevented  either  party  from  having  a 
majority.  The  Congressional  elections  gave  the 
Republicans  a  majority  of  one  over  all  in  the 
House  of  Representatives,^  which  was  to  meet  in 
December,  1881. 

8.  Congress    met    December    6th,    1880.     The 
XLVIth  Congress,  principal   business   of    the 
2d  Session.  Session  was  to  count   the 

electoral  votes,  as  to  which  there  was,  luckily,  no 
doubtful  question  of  vital  importance  to  either 
party.  Georgia  had  as  yet  neglected  to  alter  her 
State  law,  as  passed  under  the  Confederacy,  by 
which  her  electors  met  and  voted  on  the  second 
Wednesday  of  December  instead  of  the  first  Wed- 
nesday, as  required  by  Federal  law.  Both  parties 
amicably  agreed  to  count  the  vote  of  Georgia  *'in 

1  One  Democratic  elector  in  California  was  defeated. 

2  Rep.  147,  Dem.  136,  Grb.  9,  Ind.  i. 

17 


258  American  Politics.  [188 1 

the  alternative," '  declaring  that  Garfield  and  Ar- 
thur had  214  votes,  that  Hancock  and  English  had 
155  votes  if  the  vote  of  Georgia  were  counted,  and 
144  votes  if  the  vote  of  Georgia  were  not  counted, 
and  that  in  either  case  Garfield  and  Arthur  were 
elected.  Congress  adjourned  March  3d,  i88i,and 
March  4th  Garfield  and  Arthur  were  sworn  into 
office. 

I  See  p.  97. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

TWENTY-FOURTH   ADMINISTRATION,     1881-1885. 

James  A.  Gterfleld,  President.       Chester  A.  Arthur,  Vice-President. 
XliVIIth  and  XUVIIIth  Congresses. 

Popular  Vote  for  President  in  1880  .-  Rep.  4,442,950, 
De7n.  4,442,035,  National  {^Greenback)  306,867, 
Scattering  12,576. 

I.  An  extra  session  of  the  Senate,  to  consider 
XLVIIth  Congress,  the  new  Presi- 
Senate,  ist  Extra  Session,  dent's  nominations 
to  office,  met  immediately  after  the  inauguration. 
In  actual  membership  the  parties  were  a  tie,^  but  the 
casting  vote  of  the  Vice-President  gave  the  Re- 
publicans a  majority.  They  at  once  undertook  to 
change  the  employees  of  the  Senate,  as  the  Demo- 
crats had  done  on  obtaining  control  of  the  Senate. 
The  Democrats  resisted  the  attempt  on  the  ground 
that  the  Senate,  at  its  extra  session,  ought  to 
attend  only  to  the  specific  business  for  which  it 
had  been  summoned  ;  and,  there  being  no  rules  in 
the  Senate  to  limit  debate,  the  dispute  was  pro- 
longed for  many  weeks,  to  the  neglect  of  all  other 

I  Dem.  37,  Rep.  37,  Ind.  2.     The  independent  vote  was  divided  betweea 
the  two  parties. 


26o  American  Politics.  [1881 

business.  The  sudden  resignation  of  the  two  Re- 
pubhcan  Senators^  from  New  York,  because  of  a 
disagreement  with  the  President  as  to  certain 
appointments  in  their  State,  left  the  Democrats 
in  the  majority,  and  the  Senate,  having  confirmed 
the  President's  nominations,  adjourned  May  24th, 
1881.  The  attention  of  the  whole  people  was 
again  called  to  the  necessity  of  Civil-Service 
Reform— which  had  long  been  formally  approved 
by  both  parties  and  faithfully  executed  by  neither — 
by  the  crime  of  a  disappointed  office-seeker  in  shoot- 
ing the  President,  with  intent  to  kill  him,  July  2d, 
i88r.  September  19th,  President  Garfield  died, 
and  Vice-President  Arthur  became  President  in 
his  stead.  The  assassin,  after  trial  and  conviction, 
was  hanged  in  the  following  year. 

2.  A   second    extra   session   of  the  Senate  met 
XLVIIth  Congress,         after  the  death  of 

Senate,  2d  Extra  Session.  President  Garfield, 
to  consider  the  nominations  of  his  successor  to 
offices  in  the  Cabinet  and  elsewhere.  Thomas  F. 
Bayard  was  succeeded  by  David  Davis,  an  Inde- 
pendent, as  President  of  the  Senate,  and  Arthur's 
Cabinet  nominations  were  confirmed.  Robert  Lin- 
coln was  the  only  one  of  Garfield's  Cabinet 
ultimately  retained. 

3.  Congress  met   December  5th,  1881.^     In  the 

1  Roscoe  Conkling  and  Thomas  C.  Piatt. 

2  Senate,  Dem.  37,  Rep.  37,  Ind.  2  ;  House,  Rep.  147,  Dam.  136,  Grb.  9, 
Ind,  I. 


1 882.]  Tariff  Commission,  261 

XLVIIth    Congress,    House  the   Republicans 
1st  Session.  had  a    majority    of    one 

over  all  others,  and  J.  Warren  Keifer  was  chosen 
Speaker.  The  President's  Message  fu  Hi  lied  the 
expectations  which  the  country  had  formed  after  the 
announcement  of  his  Cabinet.  It  took  high  ground 
concerning  Civil  Service  Reform,  recommend- 
ing important  legislation  with  reference  to  strength- 
ening and  applying  the  principle.  It  contained 
aLso  a  forcible  presentation  of  the  necessity  of  fur- 
ther action  on  the  part  of  Congress  with  reference 
to  Mormonism  and  the  cessation  of  silver  coinage. 
A  new  Apportionment  Act  was  passed,  based 
on  the  census  of  iSSo.  'I'he  ratio  of  representa- 
tion was  fixed  at  one  Congressman  to  151,912 
inhabitants.  This  raised  the  membership  of  the 
House  to  325,  and  the  total  electoral  vote  to  401. 
The  Edmunds  Anti-Polygamy  Bill  was  passed 
and  became  a  law.  There  was  much  discussion  of 
the  demand  made  for  the  exclusion  of  the  Chinese. 
A  bill  was  finally  prepared,  passed,  and  signed  by 
the  President,  which  prohibited  immigration  from 
China  for  ten  years.  A  River  and  Harbor  Bill 
providing  for  extraordinary  appropriations  was 
passed  over  the  President's  veto.  The  most  im- 
portant political  question  was  the  reduction  of  the^ 
Tariff,  and  provision  was  made  for  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  Commission  to  bring  in  a  report  on  the 
matter.  Such  was  the  general  prosperity  of  the 
whole   country,    notably    of   the    South,    that   the 


362  American  Politics.  [1883 

receipts  for  revenue  were  far  larger  than  the  nec- 
essary expenditures  of  the  government,  whose 
creditors  refused  to  receive  their  money  before  it 
was  due,  and  the  increasing  surplus  made  evident 
the  necessity  for  a  reduction  of  taxation.  Congress 
adjourned  August  8th,  1882.  In  1881  was  cele- 
brated the  centennial  anniversary  of  the  surrender 
at  Yorktown.  British  representatives  were  present, 
and  the  British  flag  was  saluted  by  order  of  the 
President.  In  1882  the  Mississippi  overflowed  its 
banks  in  a  flood  so  disastrous  as  to  drive  nearly 
100,000  people  from  their  homes  for  a  time.  The 
State  elections  held  in  the  fall  were  favorable  to 
the  Democrats,  and  Chas.  J  Folger,  who  was  avow- 
edly the  Administration  candidate  for  Governor  of 
New  York,  was  defeated  by  Grover  Cleveland. 

4.  Congress  met  December  4th,  1882.    The  Pen- 
XLVIIth  Congress,     dleton   Civil   Service 
2d  Session.  Bill  was  debated,  passed 

and  approved.  It  could  not  under  the  Constitution 
curtail  the  President's  power  of  appointment,  but  it 
allowed  the  President  to  create  a  board  of  exami- 
ners, and  to  make  appointments  from  those  who 
were  recommended  by  them.  The  Act  was  imme- 
diately enforced  and  faithfully  executed  by  Arthur. 
The  principle  of  Civil  Service  Reform  was  thereby 
established  as  a  question  not  only  in  National  but 
in  State  politics.  On  the  report  of  the  Tariff 
Commission  a  bill  was  passed  and  approved,  but 
the  execution  of  its  provisions  did  not  reduce  the 


1884.]  Knights  of  Labor.  263 

revenue  as  much  as  was  expected,  and  the  question 
remained  an  open  one.  Congress  adjourned  March 
4th,  1883. 

5.  The  year  1883  was  politically  uneventful.  But 
about  this  time  the  growth  of  corporations  in  num- 
bers and  wealth  made  it  clear  that  the  old  Trade 
Unions  of  labor  were  not  radical  enough  to  cope 
successfully  with  the  new  force  developed  by  capi- 
tal. Accordingly,  to  meet  the  imperfectly  under- 
stood but  much  dreaded  consequences  of  the 
"pool,"  the  "trust,"  and  the  "black-list,"  a  local 
Philadelphia  society,  the  Knights  of  Labor, 
numbering  at  this  time  52,000  members,  suddenly 
sprang  into  prominence,  proposing  the  union  of  all 
kinds  and  classes  of  labor  into  one  organization,  so 
as  to  paralyze  if  needful  the  industry  of  the  whole 
country  to  redress  the  wrongs  of  the  humblest 
workingraan. 

Windstorms  or  cyclones  wrought  great  havoc 
during  this  and  the  following  year  in  both  the 
West  and  South. 

6.  Congress  met  December  3d,  1883.'  Edmunds 
XLVIIIth  Congress,  of   Vermont   was   elected 

1st  Session.  temporary  President  of  the 

Senate.  But  the  Democrats  controlled  the  House, 
and  chose  J.  G.  Carlisle,  of  Kentucky,  as  Speaker. 
The  most  important  legislation  proposed  was  the 
Presidential  Succession  Bill,  whereby  the  suc- 

I  Senate,  Rep,  40,  Dem,  36 ;  House,  Dem.  200,  Ind.  Dem.  4  ;  Rep.  ii6; 
Readjuster  (Rep.)  4  ;  Grb,  i. 


264  American  Politics,  [1884 

cessors  to  the  office  of  President,  in  case  of  bis  dis- 
ability or  removal  by  violent  or  natural  causes,  were 
to  be  the  Vice-President,  the  temporary  President 
of  the  Senate,  the  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives and  the  Cabinet  Secretaries  according  to 
the  seniority  of  the  various  Departments.  The  bill 
with  changes  did  not  pass  until  18S5.  There  was 
also  introduced  and  passed  by  the  Senate  the  Blair 
Educational  Bill,  to  distribute  from  the  national 
Treasury  certain  sums  for  promoting  education  in 
various  States  according  to  the  proportion  of  illi- 
teracy in  the  population.  This  proposition  has 
been  before  every  succeeding  Congress  until  the 
present  time  (1890),  but  has  never  received  the 
approval  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  and  has 
recently  (1890)  been  rejected  by  the  Senate.  An 
attempt  at  a  reduction  of  Tariff  duties  was  made 
by  the  so-called  Morrison  Horizontal  Reduc- 
tion Bill,  which  was  defeated  in  the  House  by 
the  combined  votes  of  the  Republicans  and  the 
Randall  or  Protectionist  Democrats.  The  Tariff 
was,  therefore,  the  most  important  question  in  the 
next  Presidential  election.  Congress  adjourned 
July  7th,  1884. 

7.  About  this  time  popular  discontent  with  the 
administration  of  justice  in  many  parts  of  the  coun- 
try began  to  be  acute.  In  many  cases  the  laws 
themselves  were  defective,  in  others  the  juries  were 
composed  of  unfit  men.  It  also  occurred  that 
injured  persons,  having  no  confidence  in  the  results 
of  litigation  took  the  law  mto  their  own  hands  ind 


1884.]  Presidential  Election,  265 

were  not  punished.  The  Cincinnati  Riots  of 
1884  originated  in  discontent  with  such  a  state  of 
things,  but  as  is  the  case  in  all  such  risings  the 
wildest  excesses  were  committed.  They  lasted 
several  days. 

The  combination  of  laborers  against  corporations 
went  steadily  forward  under  the  Knights  of  Labor, 
and  the  "boycott  "  was  imported  from  Ireland  as  a 
means  of  coercion.  By  its  workings  any  employer 
thought  to  be  oppressive  in  dealing  with  members 
of  any  labor  organization  was  punished  by  a  re- 
fusal to  purchase  his  products  wherever  found. 
The  announcement  of  a  boycott  was  made  as  pub- 
lic and  as  offensive  as  possible. 

8.  The  Republican  National  Convention 
met  at  Chicago  on  June  3d,  1884.  it  nonnnated 
James  G.  Blaine,  of  Maine,  and  John  A.  Logan,  of 
Illinois,  for  President  and  Vice-President  respect- 
ively. The  platform  pledged  the  party  to  a  reduc- 
tion  of  the  surplus  and  to  the  principle  of  pro- 
tection, Lo  the  control  of  corporations  by  con- 
gressional regulation  of  inter-state  commerce,  to 
the  settlement  of  the  labor  difficulties  by  the  organ- 
ization of  a  national  labor  bureau,  and  to  Civil 
Service  Reform.  It  charged  the  Democrats  witb 
fraud  and  violence  in  dealing  with  the  negro  vote 
in  the  South,  and  emphasized  the  loose-construc- 
tionist  view  of  State  rights. 

The  Democratic  National  Convention  met 
at  St.  Louis  on  July  8th.  The  platform  was 
remarkable  for  its  recognition  of  loose-construe- 


266  American  Politics.  [1884 

tionist  views  in  tlie  party.  It  derxianded  a  change 
of  administration  in  the  interests  of  pure  adminis- 
tration, evaded  the  question  of  protection  but  prom- 
ised a  reduction  of  tariff  duties  and  legislation 
looking  to  the  control  of  corporations  in  the  inter- 
ests  of  labor.  It  arraigned  the  Republican  policy 
as  having  destroyed  the  merchant  marine,  and 
also  promised  Chinese  exclusion.  It  promised  Civil 
Service  Reform  and  announced  an  "  American 
contmental  policy,  based  upon  more  intimate  com- 
mercial and  political  relations  with  the  fifteen  re- 
publics, but  entangling  alliance  with  none."  The 
nominations  were  Grover  Cleveland,  of  New  York, 
for  President,  and  Thomas  A.  Hendricks,  of 
Indiana,  for  Vice-President.  The  National  or 
People's  ("  Greenback  ")  Convention  nomi- 
nated Benjamin  F.  Butler,  of  Massachusetts,  and 
A.  M.  West,  of  Mississippi,  for  President  and  Vice- 
President,  on  a  platform  demanding  the  substitu- 
tion of  greenbacks  for  National  bank  notes  in 
order  to  make  money  "  cheap,"  and  denouncing 
monopolies.  The  Prohibition  Convention  nom- 
inated John  P.  St.  John,  of  Kansas,  and  William 
Daniel,  of  Maryland.  The  platform  demanded 
the  entire  suppression  of  the  manufacture  and  sale 
of  all  intoxicating  drinks,  and  enunciated  the  princi- 
ple of  Woman  Suffrage.  Nominations  were  also 
made  by  the  W^oman  Suffrage  party  and  the  Ameri- 
can Alliance. 

The  ensuing  contest  was  very  vigorous,  and  was 
embittered  by  disgraceful  attacks  upon  the  per* 


1884.]  Democratic  Success,  267 

sonal  character  of  each  of  the  two  leading  candi- 
dates. It  was  also  marked  by  the  unsuccessful 
attempt  to  form  an  Independent  party  to  support 
Cleveland.  After  the  election  in  November  it 
was  found  that  the  Democrats  had  183  electoral 
votes  and  the  Republicans  182,  without  those  of 
New  York,  and  that  none  had  been  chosen  by 
either  the  Prohibition  or  the  People's  party.  In 
that  State  the  result  was  doubtful  for  two  days,  the 
vote  being  very  close.  The  official  count  showed 
a  small  majority  for  the  Democrats,  and  gave, 
therefore,  36  electoral  votes  to  them.  This  result 
was  due  in  part  to  the  Prohibitionists,  and  in  part 
to  the  independent  voters,  or  "  Mugwumps,"as  they 
were  commonly  called,  who  were  influential  and 
active  although  without  an  organization.  Th^ 
elections  for  Representatives  in  the  Congress 
which  was  to  meet  in  December,  1885,  resulted  in 
a  Democratic  majority  of  forty. 

9.  Congress  met  December  ist,  1884.     The  ses- 
XLVIIIth  Congress,  sion  was  very    unevent- 
2d    Session.  ful,     and     the     general 

feeling  of  the  country,  which  was  one  of  expecta- 
tion, was  reflected  in  both  the  Administration  and 
in  Congress.  The  President's  message,  however, 
recommended  a  cessation  in  the  coining  of  silver. 
It  was  also  proposed  in  the  House  to  increase  the 
number  of  Cabinet  officers  by  changing  the  Bureau 
of  Agriculture  into  a  Department.  Congress  ad- 
journed March  4th,  1885,  and  Cleveland  and  Hen- 
dricks were  sworn  into  office. 


CHAPTER    XXVI. 

TWENTY-FIFTH    ADMINTS'lR  ATION,    1885-1889. 

Grover  Cleveland,  President.   Thomas  A.  Hendricks,  Vice-President, 
XlilXth  and  Ltli  Congrresses. 

Popular  vote  for  President  i/i  1 884.     JDefn.  4,9 1 1 ,0 1  7^ 
i?6'/.  4,848,334,  Pro/lib.  15  r, 809,  People's  133,825. 

1.  During  the  spring  and  summer  of  1885  the 
most  important  political  question  was  that  of  the 
Civil  Service.  For  the  first  time  in  more  than 
fifty  years  no  sweeping  changes  in  the  non-poHtical 
offices  were  made.  The  Pendleton  Act  was  obeyed 
in  spirit,  and  its  principle  was  applied  to  many 
offices  not  covered  by  it.  In  a  few  instances  only 
changes  were  made  "  for  the  good  of  the  service," 
where  the  charges  against  the  officers  removed 
were  not  made  public,  and  the  President  was 
charged  with  acting  upon  the  '  spoils  '  system  of 
distributing  offices  and  violating  the  Tenure  of 
Office  Act.)  Many  famous  men  died  during  this 
period,  among  others  Grant,  McClellan,  and  the 
Vice-President,  Hendricks.  The  death  of  the  latter 
again  called  attention  to  the  importance  of  regu- 
lating the  Presidential  succession. 

2.  Congress  met   December  i6th,    1885.*      The 

I  Senate,   Rep.  41,  Dem.  35.      House,  Dem.   182,  Rep.  138,  People's  2, 
Vacancies  3. 

268 


1885.]  Presidential  Succession.  269 

XLlXth  Congress,     President's    Message  con- 
ISt  Session.  tained   four    recommenda- 

tions of  importance — the  reduction  of  Tariff  duties, 
the  extension  of  Civil  Service  Reform,  tiie  regulation 
of  the  Presidental  succession,  and  tiie  appointment 
of  a  commission  to  settle  the  Fisheries  Disputes 
with  Great  Britain.  John  Sherman  was  elected 
temporary  President  of  the  Senate,  and  Speaker  J. 
G.  Carlisle  was  re-elected  in  the  House.  This  Ses- 
sion of  Congress  was  unusually  fruitless  in  completed 
legislation.  The  only  bills  of  importance  which 
became  laws  were  the  Presidential  Succession 
Bill,  naming  the  Vice-President  and  the  Secretaries 
of  the  I^epartments  in  the  order  of  establishment, 
as  successors  in  case  of  the  disability  or  death  of 
those  preceding  them,  provided  that  such  Secretaries 
be  constitutionally  eligible,  the  Increased  Pensions 
Bill,  and  the  Bill  increasing  the  Navy.  The  Presi- 
dent vetoed  over  one  hundred  Acts  of  Congress, 
about  ninety  of  which  were  private  pension  bills. 
There  was  a  sharp  contest  between  the  Pres- 
ident and  the  Senate  in  regard  to  suspensions 
and  nominations,  which  resulted  in  a  practical  vic- 
tory for  the  former.  This  was  really  a  matter  of 
political  tactics,  for  the  Administration  did  not  lay 
before  the  Senate  the  papers  containing  the  reasons 
for  removal  as  it  demanded,  and  as  the  legal  terms 
of  many  of  the  suspended  officials  had  expired,  the 
President  formally  withdrew  his  nominations  and 
sent  them   in   again   as   new   ones.     The   logic  of 


270  American  Politics,  [1886 

events  thus  brought  about  their  confirmation.  The 
Democrats  prepared  a  Tariff  Bill,  but  failed  to 
secure  its  consideration.  Congress  adjourned 
August  5th,  1886. 

3.  The  Civil  Service  Commission  was  fully 
organized  about  April  ist,  and  entered  upon  its 
work  with  judgment  and  zeal.  The  examining 
boards  were  reformed  so  as  to  free  them  from  direct 
or  indirect  political  influence.  Their  investigation 
of  the  Custom  House  in  New  York  discovered  the 
boldest  violations  of  the  spirit  of  the  law,  and 
resulted  in  the  resignation  of  the  Collector.  The 
commission  further  regulated  the  relations  of  local 
boards  to  itself  in  the  matter  of  records  and 
reports,  and  perfected  a  plan  for  promotion.  The 
President  did  all  in  his  power  to  second  their 
efforts  ;  he  officially  warned  all  office-holders  against 
attempts  to  control  local  politics,  and  appointed  a 
Republican  to  be  chief-examiner  for  the  Civil  Ser- 
vice commission.  Public  sentiment  was  in  general 
favorable  to  the  reform,  but  much  unsuccessful 
hostility  to  it  was  shown  in  the  Senate. 

4.  By  this  time  the  numbers  of  the  Knights  of 
Labor  had  grown  to  600,000.  Labor  troubles  were 
widespread,  and  strikes  of  a  serious  nature  occurred 
throughout  the  country.  Desperate  agitators,  who 
called  themselves  Anarchists,  made  demonstra- 
tions in  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  New  York.  The 
leaders  of  the  Chicago  rioters  were  indicted  for 
murder,  seven  were  found  guilty,  and  four  of  them 


1 886.]  Electoral  Count  Act.  271 

were  hanged.  In  other  cities  they  were  punished 
according  to  the  nature  of  their  offense.  The 
officers  of  the  Knights  of  Labor  organization 
showed  much  good  sense  and  moderation  in  their 
published  orders,  but  they  were  unable  to  control 
the  baser  elements  in  the  society.  It  began,  there- 
fore, to  lose  whatever  good  reputation  it  had  ac- 
quired. The  courts  dealt  the  ''  boycott  "  a  severe 
blow  by  convicting  of  conspiracy  many  of  those  who 
engaged  in  it,  and  punishing  them  by  imprison- 
ment for  terms  varying  from  three  months  to  four 
years.  The  President  in  a  special  message  to  Con- 
gress recommended  arbitration  by  a  permanent 
Commission  of  Labor  as  the  means  of  settling  all 
controversies  between  labor  and  capital. 

5.  The  Second  Session  of  the   Forty-ninth  Con- 
XLIXth  Congress,  gress  began   on    December 
2d  Session.  6th,  1886.     The  President's 

Message  emphasized  the  importance  of  reducing 
the  surplus  revenue,  and  recommended  lowering 
the  duties  on  the  necessities  of  life  and  on  raw  ma- 
terials. It  also  commended  the  working  of  the 
Civil  Service  Law  as  the  "surest  guarantee  of  the 
safety  and  success  of  American  institutions."  Later 
the  papers  concerning  the  Canadian  Fisheries 
Dispute  were  laid  before  Congress,  with  a  state- 
ment from  the  Administration  that  it  would  de- 
mand damages  for  the  seizure  of  American  fishing 
vessels.  Several  very  important  measures  became 
law.     The  Electoral  Count  Act  permits  Con- 


272  American  Politics.  [1886 

gress  to  go  behind  the  returns  only  when  a  State 
fails  to  settle  its  own  disputes.  The  Free  Delivery 
System  of  the  Post  Office  Department  was  materially 
extended  ;  the  Trade  Dollar  was  withdrawn  from 
circulation  ;  lands  were  granted  in  severalty  to  the 
Indians  ;  private  claims  were  ordered  henceforth  to 
be  referred  to  the  Court  of  Claims  ;  and  the  Presi- 
dent was  authorized  to  take  severe  retaliatory  meas- 
ures against  Canada.  The  Dependent  Pension 
Bill,  granting  twelve  dollars  a  month  to  every  hon- 
orably discharged  war  veteran  of  not  less  than  three 
months'  service,  who  was  at  the  time  dependent  on 
his  own  daily  labor  or  on  others  for  support,  was 
vetoed  by  the  President,  as  were  also  many  private 
pension  bills.  The  Morrison  Tariff  Bill,  which  had 
been  prepared  the  year  before  by  the  majority  of 
the  Democrats,  was  again  offered  for  consideration, 
but  the  movement  was  defeated  as  before  by  the 
Republicans  and  protection  Democrats.  The  Anti- 
Polygamy  Bill  became  law  without  the  Presi- 
dent's signature.  It  was  more  radical  in  its  meas- 
ures than  any  previous  law,  and  made  the  status  of 
polygamy  criminal.  The  Tenure  of  Office  Law  was 
repealed.  During  the  closing  days  of  the  Session, 
Senator  Sherman  resigned  the  temporary  Presidency 
of  the  Senate,  and  was  succeeded  in  that  office  by 
J.  J.  Ingalls  of  Kansas. 

6.  By  far  the  most  important  action  of  the  Session 
was  the  passage  and  approval  of  the  Inter-State 
Commerce  Act.     This  law  created  a  Commission 


iSS/.]        Inter-State  Commerce  Act.  273 

of  five  members,  to  be  appointed  by  the  President 
and  confirmed  by  the  Senate.  It  has  authority  to 
call  for  books,  papers,  etc.,  to  summon  witnesses, 
and  to  appeal  to  the  Courts  for  assistance  in  cases 
of  disobedience.  The  Commissioners,  moreover, 
must  not  be  in  anyway  pecuniarily  interested  in  the 
stocks  or  bonds  of  corporations  affected  by  the  Act, 
nor  in  their  employment.  The  chief  provisions  of 
the  law  torbid  discrimination  in  rates  and  the  pool- 
ing of  freights  by  different  and  competing  railroads, 
or  dividing  between  them  the  aggregate  or  any 
proportion  of  the  earnings  of  such  railroads. 
The  penalty  is  a  fine  of  $500  for  each  offence,  but 
relief  authorizing  (in  special  cases)  a  less  charge  for 
a  "long  haul,"  than  for  a  '-'■  short  haul,"  may  from 
time  to  time  be  granted  by  the  Commission.  In 
accordance  with  tlie  statute  the  Commission  was 
constituted  on  March  22d  by  the  appointment  of 
men  of  recognized  ability  and  discretion.  The 
operation  of  the  law  has  given  general  satisfaction. 
Congress  adjourned  March  3d,  1887.  The  Con- 
gressional elections  of  the  autumn  resulted  in  a 
somewhat  diminished  Democratic  majority  in  the 
House.  Contested  elections  for  the  Senate  in  sev- 
eral Legislatures  made  its  political  character  un- 
certain. 

7.  The  Administration  did  not  satisfy  the  reform- 
ers in  the  further  development  of  reform  in  official 
appointments,  but  they  admitted  that,  nevertheless, 
the  "■  spoils  "  system  was  seriously  shaken.     During 


274  American  Politics.  [1887 

the  summer  there  were  two  great  strikes,  both 
unsuccessful,  in  the  building  trade.  The  labor 
movement  began  to  lose  support  because  of  the 
pronounced  social i.-;m  of  many  of  its  leaders. 
The  Knights  of  Labor  diminished  in  influence, 
and  their  numbers  decreased  by  nearly  two  hun- 
dred  thousand  within  the  year.  This  was  due  in 
a  measure  to  the  increasing  strength  of  a  rival 
society,  the  American  Federation  of  Labor. 

The  celebration  in  Philadelphia,  September  15-17, 
of  the  centenary  of  the  Federal  Constitution  was  a 
notable  event.  Larger  numbers  participated,  either 
as  on-lookers  or  in  the  parades  and  public  exer- 
cises, than  in  any  previous  centennial  celebration. 

8.  When  the  Fiftieth  Congress'  met,  on  December 
Lth  Congress,  5th,   1887,  it  was  found  that  the 

1st  Session.  Senate  was  almost  equally  divid- 
ed, with  one  independent  vote,  and  that  in  the 
House  the  Democrats  had  a  majority  of  eleven 
over  all  others.  Speaker  Carlisle  was  again  re- 
elected. The  President's  Message  was  devoted 
exclusively  to  one  topic,  the  Tariff.  He  estimated 
that  the  surplus  would  be  $140,000,000  on  June, 
30th,  1888.  He  denounced  the  existing  tariff  laws 
as  "the  vicious,  inequitable,  and  illogical  source 
of  unnecessary  taxation,"  and  demanded  as  a  rem- 
edy the  abolition  of  duties  on  raw  materials, 
arguing  especially  in  favor  of  the  removal  of 
the  duty  on  wool.     This  was  the  longest  Session 

I  Senate,  Rep.  39,  Dem.  37;  House,  Dem.  168.   Rep.  153,  Ind.  4. 


1 888.]  The   Tariff.  275 

of  Congress  ever  held,  but  it  was  not  fruitful  of 
important  legislation.  •  One  Act  made  permanent 
the  authority  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  to 
purchase  bonds  with  the  surplus  in  the  Treasury. 
The  largest  River  and  Harbor  appropriation  ever 
made  ($22,227,000)  became  law  without  the 
President's  signature.  Bills  were  also  passed 
authorizing  the  President  to  arrange  for  an  Ail- 
American  Congress  and  for  an  International  Ma- 
rine Conference  ;  the  necessary  appropriations 
being  contained  in  the  Acts.  The  former  v/as  to 
consist  of  delegates  from  all  independent  govern- 
ments in  North,  Central,  and  South  America.  The 
latter  was  to  be  a  conference  between  the  marine 
nations  of  the  world  to  devise  means  for  assuring 
greater  safety  for  life  and  property  at  sea.  Thtj 
Blair  Educational  Bill  again  passed  the  Senate  by 
a  diminished  majority,  but  was  defeated  in  the 
House.  A  new  tariff  measure  known  as  the  Mills 
Bill  was  passed  by  the  House.  Its  most  impor- 
tant feature  was  the  removal  of  the  duty  on  wool, 
and  it  was  estimated  that  this,  with  other  less  im- 
portant changes,  would  reduce  the  customs  duties 
by  §50,000,000.  The  Senate  Finance  Committee 
introduced  a  substitute,  repealing  the  tobacco  tax 
and  reducing  the  sugar  duty  one-half.  By  these 
means  the  revenue  would  be  diminished  by  $65,- 
000,000.  A  Fisheries  Treaty  with  England  had 
been  negotiated,  but  it  was  unsatisfactory  to  New 
England  and  was  rejected  by  the  Senate.     The 


2/6  American  Politics.  [1888 

President  then  asked  for  powers  to  visit  upon  Can- 
ada the  severest  form  of  retaliation,  by  stopping 
the  transhipment  of  Canadian  goods  in  bond 
across  the  United  States.  A  bill  granting  the  power 
was  passed  as  a  party  measure  in  the  House,  but 
the  Senate  by  referring  it  to  a  committee  virtually 
ended  any  possibility  of  action.  A  new  treaty  with 
China,  prohibiting  the  entrance  of  Chinese  labor 
into  the  United  States  for  twenty  years,  was  rati- 
fied by  the  Senate  and  rejected  by  China.  There- 
upon a  new  Chinese  Exclusion  Bill  of  the  ut- 
most stringency  was  passed  by  both  Houses  and 
approved  by  the  President.  Congress  adjourned 
October  20th,  1888. 

9.  The  cause  of  Civil  Service  Reform  was 
theoretically  furthered  by  an  executive  order  en- 
larging the  scope  of  the  classified  service,  and  by  the 
complete  revision  and  marked  improvement  of  the 
rules  and  regulations,  but  there  began  to  be  wide- 
spread distrust  of  the  practical  methods  of  party 
managers,  and  the  unpunished  partisan  activity  of 
office-holders  was  notorious.  Labor  troubles  di- 
minished in  number  and  importance,  although 
there  was  one  very  serious  railroad  strike  and  some 
dangerous  agitation.  The  most  important  reform 
movement  of  the  time  was  the  initiation  by  Massa- 
chusetts, Wisconsin,  and  a  few  other  States,  of  a 
new  method  of  voting  intended  to  secure  secrecy 
and  prevent  bribery.  This  Ballot  Reform  makes 
steady  headway,  although  there  has  been  much  op- 


1 888.]  Presidential  Election.  277 

position.  The  Supreme  Court  decided  that  the 
law  in  Washington  Territory  extending  the  suffrage 
to  women  was  unconstitutional.  The  cause  of 
Temperance  was  much  strengthened  by  poUtical 
and  judicial  action  in  New  York,  New  Jersey,  and 
Pennsylvania,  although  it  has  since  been  somewhat 
discredited  by  the  extreme  views  of  some  of  its 
supporters,  and  has  been  weakened  temporarily  by 
the  unexampled  activity  of  its  opponents. 

10.  The  Democratic  National  Convention 
assembled  at  St.  Louis,  on  June  5th,  1888.  Presi- 
dent Cleveland  was  renominated  unanimously  and 
by  acclamation,  and  Allen  G.  Thurman,  of  Ohio, 
was  nominated  for  Vice-President  on  the  first  bal- 
lot. The  platform  indorsed  the  Administration, 
for  the  inauguration  of  honest  reform  in  the  Civil 
Service  and  for  its  efficiency,  emphatically  ap- 
proving the  President's  message  in  regard  to  rev- 
enue reform,  and  declared  that  "  domestic  indus- 
tries should  not  and  need  not  be  endangered  by 
the  reduction  and  correction  of  the  burdens  of  tax- 
ation." The  Republican  National  Convention 
met  in  Chicago,  June  19th.  Once  in  February, 
and  again  in  May,  letters  had  been  published  from 
Mr.  Blaine,  who  was  in  Europe,  declaring  that  he 
could  not  accept  a  nomination  to  the  Presidency, 
but  in  spite  of  that  fact  there  were  still  many  in  the 
Convention  who  hoped  that  the  party  could  unite 
on  no  other  candidate.  On  the  third  day,  however, 
and  after  seven  ballots,  Benjamin  Harrison,  of  In- 


27$  American  Politics.  [1888 

diana.  and  Levi  P.  Morton,  of  New  York,  were 
noininaled  for  President  and  Vice-President  re- 
spectively. The  platform  charged  the  party  in 
power  with  suppression  of  the  ballot  in  the  South, 
inefficiency  in  its  foreign  policy,  abuse  of  the  veto 
power,  and  a  desire  to  destroy  ''  the  general  busi- 
ness, the  labor  and  the  farming  interests  of  the 
country,"  by  its  tariff  legislation.  It  favored  pro- 
tection as  the  American  system,  and  "  the  entire 
repeal  of  internal  taxes  rather  than  the  surrender  of 
any  part  of  our  protective  system."  It  claimed  for 
the  Republican  party  the  inauguration  of  Civil  Ser- 
vice Reform,  and  demanded  its  extension  in  order 
to  avoid  "the  dangers  to  free  institutions  which 
lurk  in  the  power  of  official  patronage."  The 
Prohibition  National  Convention  was  held  in 
Indianapolis  on  May  31st,  Its  nominations  were 
Clinton  B.  Fisk,  of  New  Jersey,  for  President,  and 
John  A.  Brooks,  of  Missouri,  for  Vice-President. 
The  platform  declared  that  "  the  manufacture,  im- 
portation, exportation,  and  sale  of  alcoholic  bever- 
ages should  be  made  public  crimes,  and  punished 
as  such,"  and  demanded  the  abolition  of  the  Inter- 
nal Revenue  System,  and  the  reduction  of  import 
duties.  Other  nominations  were  announced  as 
having  been  made  by  the  Equal  Rights  party, 
the  United  Labor  party,  the  Union  Labor  party, 
and  the  American  party.  The  campaign  was  less 
acrimonious  than  the  preceding  one,  but  was 
marked  by  the  use  of  money  to  an  unprecedented 


1 889-]  Ad/nissioji  of  States.  279 

extent.  The  result  of  the  election  was  the  success 
of  the  Republicans  by  a  majority  of  65  in  a  total 
electoral  vote  of  401.  The  contest  again  turned  on 
the  vote  of  New  York, 

II.  Congress  met  December  3,  18S8.  The  Pres- 
Lth  Congress,  ident's  message  was  an  ampli- 
2d  Session.  fication  of  his  former  argument 
for  a  change  in  the  tariff.  It  also  reviewed  our 
foreign  relations  and  the  condition  of  the  Depart- 
ments. To  the  already  existing  Executive  Depart- 
ments was  added  a  new  one,  that  of  Agriculture. 
An  Act  was  also  passed  providing  for  the  admission 
as  new  States  of  North  and  South  Dakota, 
Washington,  and  Montana.  A  new  Tariff 
bill  was  passed  by  the  Senate,  differing  from  the 
preceding  one  by  substituting  ad  valorem  for 
specific  duties.  In  the  House  a  report  was  pres- 
ented declaring  this  substitution  for  the  House 
(Mills)  Bill  unconstitutional.  A  contest  between 
the  representatives  of  the  two  factions  of  the  De- 
mocrats prevented  further  action.  In  December 
the  President  extended  the  scope  of  the  classified 
Civil  Service  to  the  railway  mail  service,  and  in 
spite  of  some  adverse  action  in  various  quarters, 
steady  and  sure  progress  was  made  in  the  reform, 
both  State  and  National.  Congress  adjourned 
March  4th,  1889,  and  Harrison  and  Morton  were 
sworn  into  office. 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 

TWENTY-SIXTH    ADMINISTRATION,     1889-1893. 

Benjamin  Harrison,  President.     Levi  P.    Morton,    Vice-President. 
JLIst  and  Llld  Cong-resses. 

Pop  III  a  r  vote  for  Pre  si  dent  in  1 8  <S  8  :  Deni .  5,536,- 
524,  Pep.  5,441,923,  Pro/lib.  246,406,  Labor 
144,608. 

I.  When  Congress  met  on  December  2d,  1888,' 
List  Congress,  the  executive  and  legisla- 

Ist  Session.  tive  departments  of  the 

Govermnent  were  Republican  throughout.  It  was 
determined  to  change  the  rules  of  the  House  so 
as  t  )  expedite  business.  Accordingly,  after  much 
heated  discussion,  the  Speaker  was  authorized  to 
count  as  present  for  the  purposes  of  a  quorum 
all  who  were  in  the  chamber,  whether  answering 
to  the  roll-call  or  not;  he  w^as  also  permitted  to 
disregard  dilatory  motitnis.  In  his  message 
President  Harrison  emphasized  the  importance 
of  the  Protective  policy,  and  a  commission,  of 
which  William  McKinley  of  Ohio  was  the  head, 
began  the  preparation  of  a  bill  to  be  presented 
for  action  at  the  earliest  possible  date.     Its  es- 

I  Senate,  Rep.  51,,  Dein.  37.     House,  Rep.  176,  Deni.  155,  "  Wlieeler,"  i. 

280 


1889.]        The  McKhtley   Tar  iff  Bill.  281 

sential  features  were  to  be  a  reduction  of  the 
revenue  and  the  maintenance  of  Protection. 
Levi  P.  Morton  took  his  seat  as  presiding  officer 
of  the  Senate,  and  Thomas  B.  Reed  of  Maine 
was  chosen  Speaker  of  the  House.  The  legisla- 
tion of  this  session  was  important.  The  McKin- 
ley  Tariff  Bill  laid  high  duties  on  such  foreign 
goods  as  came  into  competition  with  home  man- 
ufactures, and  admitted  free  those  which  did  not. 
The  Senate  amended  it  by  authorizing  the  Presi- 
dent to  impose  duties  on  certain  free  goods 
whenever  the  country  of  origin  imposed  duties 
"reciprocally  unequal  and  unreasonable"  on 
certain  of  our  exports.  With  this  Reciprocity 
clause  added,  the  bill  became  a  law.  The  Bland- 
Allison  law  of  1878  was  repealed,  and  the  Sher- 
man Law  was  enacted.  By  it  the  Government 
was  required  to  purchase  4,500,000  ounces  of  sil- 
ver monthly,  and  issue  legal-tender  treasury 
notes,  redeemable  on  demand  in  gold  or  silver  to 
the  full  value  of  the  bullion.  In  response  to  a 
recommendation  of  the  President's  message  for 
increase  of  pensions,  the  Dependent  Parents 
and  Disabilities  Act  was  passed.  The  effect 
was  to  increase  the  number  of  pensioners  from 
537,944  in  1890  to  976,014  in  1897,  and  the 
annual  expenditure  from  $72,052,143  to  $141,- 
263,880  during  the  same  period.  In  1894  the 
expenditure  for  pensions  was  over  $160,000,000, 
about  $20,000,000  less  than  half  the  total  appro- 


282  American  Politics.  [1890 

priations  for  national  purposes.  The  Navy  Ap- 
propriation Act  authorized  the  expenditure  of 
$25,000,000  for  the  increase  of  the  Navy.  The 
excess  of  expenditures  by  the  Fifty-first  Congress 
over  those  of  its  predecessors  was$i7o, 000,000;  its 
total  appropriations  were  about  $1,000,000,000, 
and  this  lavishness  has,  so  far,  been  continued. 
Chicago  was  designated  as  the  site  of  the  Colum- 
bian Exposition  in  celebration  of  the  four  hun- 
dredth anniversary  of  the  discovery  of  America 
by  Columbus.  Congress  adjourned  on  October 
ist,  1890.  Idaho  and  Wyoming  were  admitted 
as  new  States,  the  latter  after  warm  debate  as  to 
the  clause  in  its  Constitution  granting  the  suf- 
frage to  women.  A  portion  of  the  Indian  Terri- 
tory was  organized  as  Oklahoma  and  opened  to 
settlement  in  1891. 

2.  The  Civil  Service  Act  was  obeyed  in 
spirit  by  President  Harrison,  and  well  adminis- 
tered by  the  Commission.  This  policy  received 
the  hearty  support  of  public  opinion  in  spite  of 
the  remnants  of  hostility  displayed  in  various 
quarters.  The  final  count  of  the  Eleventh 
Census  made  the  total  population  of  the  United 
States  on  June  ist,  1890,  62,622,250,  an  increase 
of  somewhat  less  than  25  per  cent,  over  the  fig- 
ures of  the  Tenth.  The  negro  population  had 
increased  less  than  14  per  cent.  The  geographi- 
cal center  of  population  was  in  southern  Indiana. 
In  Kansas  the  Farmers'  Alliance  met  in  conven- 


1890.]  The  ''Peoples  Partyr  283 

tion  during  September,  1890,  with  the  Knights 
of  Labor,  and  nominated  a  State  ticket,  which 
was  elected.  The  combination  also  secured  five 
out  of  seven  Congressmen  and  one  United  States 
Senator.  They  formulated  as  demands  for  na- 
tional legislation :  the  free  and  unlimited  coinage 
of  silver  to  increase  the  currency,  a  sub-treas- 
ury scheme  for  loaning  Government  funds  to 
farmers  on  the  security  of  non-perishable  farm 
produce  at  2  per  cent.,  and  a  land  mortgage 
scheme  enabling  the  owner  of  from  10  to  320 
acres  of  land,  half  of  which  was  under  cultiva- 
tion, to  borrow  from  the  Government  treasury 
notes  equal  to  half  the  assessed  value  of  land 
and  buildings.  The  ''People's  Party"  was  or- 
ganized on  an  expansion  of  this  basis  during 
1891,  and  its  members  were  generally  known  as 
''Populists."  This  movement  was  due  to  dis- 
satisfaction with  the  legislation  of  the  Fifty-first 
Congress  and  to  serious  agricultural  depression. 
3.  The  Second  Session  of  the  Fifty-first  Con- 
Llst  Congress,  gress  began  on   Decem- 

2d  Session.  ber  ist,  1890.    Although 

alarmed  by  the  ever-growing  symptoms  of  dis- 
content throughout  the  country.  Congress  felt 
itself  committed  to  the  policy  of  creating  a  New 
Navy,  and  further  appropriated  $16,500,000  for 
new  vessels  and  equipments.  Otherwise  it  was 
economical  during  the  Second  Session.  A  new 
apportionment  of  representatives  was  made   on 


284  Americayt  Politics-  [1890 

the  basis  of  a  total  number  of  356.  Immigra- 
tion Legislation  was  amended  so  as  to  exclude, 
under  very  severe  penalties,  idiots,  insane,  crimi- 
nals, and  assisted  immigrants.  New  Circuit 
Judgeships  and  Circuit  Courts  of  Appeals  were 
created,  and  the  Inter-State  Commerce  Law  was 
amended  so  as  to  enlarge  the  powers  of  the  Com- 
mission. The  most  important  act  was  that  con- 
cerning International  Copyright,  which  under 
certain  limitations  finally  admits  the  rights  of 
foreign  authors,  giving  them  the  enjoyment  of 
their  property  within  our  boundaries. 

4.  The  widespread  agitation  for  the  free  coin- 
age of  silver  led  to  forming  and  carrying  out  a  plan 
for  an  International  Monetary  Conference  : 
it  met  in  Brussels,  but  resulted  in  disagreement. 
The  dispute  with  England  concerning  the  re- 
spective rights  and  conduct  of  Canadian  and 
American  sealers  in  the  Bering  Sea  was  tempo- 
rarily adjusted  by  declaring  a  close  season,  by 
appointing  a  joint  patrol,  and  by  making  arrange- 
ments for  submitting  the  matter  to  international 
arbitration.  A  riot  in  New  Orleans  resulted  in 
the  murder  of  several  Italian  subjects.  The 
Federal  Government  expressed  regret,  but  dis- 
claimed responsibility:  this  resulted  in  a  rupture 
of  diplomatic  relations  with  Italy;  the  breach 
was  not  closed  until  an  appropriation  of  $25,- 
000  was  made  as  an  indemnity  to  the  families  of 
the    dead    and  as   a  token  of  our  good  will   to 


1 89 1.]  Elections  of  iSgo.  285 

Italy.  United  States  sailors  from  the  Balti- 
more  were  assaulted  by  a  mob  in  Valparaiso, 
and  one  was  killed  :  reparation  was  obtained  from 
Chili,  but  only  upon  a  peremptory  demand  made 
after  unavailing  and  long  continued  negotiation. 

5.  In  the  elections  of  1890  the  Republicans 
met  with  overwhelming  defeat.  They  lost  the 
legislatures  of  New  York  and  AVisconsin,  and  a 
large  Democratic  majority  was  secured  in  the 
House  of  Representatives.  Congress^  met  on 
Llld  Congress,  December  7th,  1891,  and 

1st  Session.  Charles  F.  Crisp  of  Geor- 

gia was  elected  Speaker.  The  situation  ren- 
dered impossible  the  passage  of  any  bills  along 
the  line  of  strict  party  policy.  Acts  were  passed 
enforcing  reciprocal  relations  with  Canada,  regu- 
lating the  redemption  of  National  Bank  notes, 
excluding  Chinese  emigrants  for  ten  years,  mak- 
ing eight  hours  a  day's  labor  for  workingmen  in 
Government  employment,  regulating  the  admin- 
istration of  the  pension  bureau,  admitting  foreign- 
built  ships  to  American  register  under  certain 
conditions,  and  appropriating  funds  for  the  Co- 
lumbian Exposition.  Treaties  of  reciprocity  with 
eleven  foreign  countries  were  proclaimed  by  the 
President  and  the  operations  of  the  McKinley 
Tariff  Bill  were  adjusted  by  slight  changes.  Con- 
gress adjourned  on  August  5th,  1892. 

I  Senate,  Rep.  47,  Dem.  39,  Independents,  2.  House,  Dem.  235,  Rep. 
83,  Farmers'  Alliance,  g. 


286  American  Politics.  [1892 

6.  The  Civil  Service  Commission  reported 
that  politics  had  virtually  disappeared  as  a  factor 
in  appointments  to  the  classified  service  of  the 
Government.  Patronage  was  abolished  in  the 
navy  yards  and  from  a  portion  of  the  Indian 
service.  The  efforts  of  the  Commission  to  pre- 
vent the  soliciting  of  political  contributions  from 
office-holders  were  partially  successful.  The  work 
of  Ballot  Reform  was  conspicuously  advanced 
by  the  further  adoption  of  what  is  known  as  the 
Australian  system  of  secret  voting  in  a  sufficient 
number  of  States  to  raise  the  total  to  twenty- 
four.  Many  distinguished  men  died  during  this 
period;  notably  George  Bancroft,  the  historian, 
Admiral  Porter,  and  General  Sherman.  The 
Anti-Polygamy  law  was  enforced  so  rigidly  in 
Utah  that  the  Mormons  in  general  conference 
formally  renounced  the  institution.  In  thirteen 
States  acts  were  passed  which  either  constituted 
eight  hours  a  lawful  day's  work  on  State  or 
municipal  work,  or  made  an  advance  in  that 
direction.  About  half  the  States  enacted  laws 
against  boycotting  and  black-listing,  and  in  the 
same  number  the  organization  of  labor  bureaus 
was  completed. 

7.  The  Republican  National  Convention 
met  at  Minneapolis  on  June  7th,  1893.  Presi- 
dent Harrison  was  renominated  on  the  first 
ballot,  and  Whitelaw  Reid  of  New  York  was 
nominated  for  Vice-President    by   acclamation. 


1892.]  National  Conventions.  287 

The  platform  indorsed  Protection,  Reciprocity, 
the  use  of  both  gold  and  silver  as  the  standard 
money  under  such  provisions  as  would  secure 
the  parity  of  the  two  metals,  emphasized 
the  Monroe  doctrine,  and  called  for  further 
restriction  of  immigration.  The  Democratic 
National  Convention  met  at  Chicago  on 
June  20th.  Mr.  Cleveland  was  nominated 
for  President  on  the  first  ballot  and,  likewise, 
General  Adlai  E.  Stevenson  of  Illinois.  The 
platform  affirmed  the  allegiance  of  the  party 
to  the  principles  of  Jefferson,  deplored  the  tend- 
ency to  centralize  all  power  at  Washington, 
asserted  the  principle  of  tariff  for  revenue,  in- 
dorsed the  idea  of  reciprocity,  and  advocated  the 
free  coinage  of  both  gold  and  silver  on  condition 
that  the  unit  be  of  equal  intrinsic  and  interchange- 
able value,  or  on  a  basis  of  safe  international  agree- 
ment and  legislation  to  secure  the  equal  power 
of  every  dollar;  it  approved  civil  service  reform 
and  the  restriction  of  immigration.  The  national" 
convention  of  the  People's  Party  assembled  at 
Omaha  on  July  2d.  General  James  B.  Weaver 
was  nominated  for  President  on  the  first  ballot 
and  James  G.  Field  secured  the  nomination  for 
Vice-President.  The  platform  set  forth  the 
existing  discontent  and  its  causes,  demanded 
government  ownership  of  railroads,  telegraphs, 
and  telephones,  free  coinage  of  gold  and  silver 
at  the  ratio  of  16  to  t,  a  circulation  of  at  least 


288  American  Politics.  [1892 

fifty  dollars  per  head  of  the  population,  a  gradu- 
ated income  tax,  the  establishment  of  postal 
savings  banks,  and  the  reclamation  of  all  land 
held  by  aliens  and  by  corporations  in  excess 
of  their  needs.  The  Prohibition  National 
Convention  met  at  Cincinnati  on  June  29th. 
There  was  a  marked  divergence  of  opinion  as 
to  fusion  with  the  People's  Party,  but  finally 
General  John  Bidwell  was  nominated  for  Presi- 
dent and  the  Rev.  J.  B.  Cranfill  for  Vice- 
President.  The  platform  demanded  a  cur- 
rency  issued  directly  by  Government,  a  tariff  for 
defense  against  the  tariffs  of  other  countries, 
direct  taxation  for  necessary  revenue,  the  sup- 
pression of  stock-jobbing  methods  and  of  the 
liquor  traffic,  the  suffrage  for  women,  govern- 
ment control  of  railroads  and  telegraphs,  one 
day  of  rest  in  seven  for  everybody,  the  restric- 
tion of  immigration,  and  the  prohibition  of  alien 
land  ownership.  During  the  summer  there  were 
serious  labor  riots  near  Pittsburgh  and  Buffalo. 
Small  bands  of  detectives  were  employed  in  the 
former,  and  the  latter  were  suppressed  by  military 
force.  Much  blood  was  shed,  and  there  was 
a  general  outcry  for  some  peaceful  method  of 
settling  labor  disputes.  The  elections  turned 
on  Protection.  They  were  quiet  and  resulted 
in  a  sweeping  victory  for  the  Democrats,  who 
secured  277  of  the  444  electoral  votes. 

8.  There  was  little  lecrislation  of  the  first  im- 


1892.]    Proposed  Annexatioji  of  Haivaii,     289 

portance  in  the  Second  Session  of  the  Fifty- 
Llld  Congress,  second  Congress,  which 

2d  Session.  began  on  December  5th. 

A  revolution  had  occurred  in  Hawaii  by  which 
the  monarchy  was  overthrown  and  a  treaty  for 
the  annexation  of  the  islands  to  the  United 
States  was  laid  before  the  Senate,  but  its  friends 
could  not  secure  action  on  it.  An  extradition 
treaty  with  Russia  was  ratified,  which  called 
forth  emphatic  protests  from  those  who  feared  it 
might  be  construed  so  as  not  to  protect  political 
offenders.  The  state  of  the  Treasury  and  falling 
off  of  the  revenue  began  to  cause  uneasiness,  as 
did  also  the  steady  and  growing  drain  of  gold 
from  the  Treasury.  The  regular  appropriations 
were  made  toward  the  close  of  the  session  and 
amounted  to  over  five  hundred  millions,  thus 
equaling  the  record  for  extravagance  of  the 
preceding  Congress.  Some  modifications  in  the 
direction  of  further  stringency  were  enacted  in 
the  Immigration  Bill.  Congress  adjourned  March 
4th,  1893,  and  Cleveland  and  Stevenson  were 
sworn  into  office. 


CHAPTER    XXVIII. 

TWENTY-SEVENTH    ADMINISTRATION,     1893-1897. 

Orover  Cleveland,  President.       Adlai  E.  Stevenson,  Vice-President, 
lillld  and  lilVth  Congresses. 

Popular  vote  for  President  in  1892:  Dem.  5,554,267, 
R^P'    5» 1 75) 201,     Peoples    1,042,531,   Prohib. 

I.  When  Cleveland  and  Stevenson  were  inau- 
gurated there  was  apparent  prosperity — agri- 
cultural, commercial,  and  industrial — throughout 
the  country.  But  the  seeds  of  panic  had  been 
sown  in  the  unstable  and  vacillating  financial 
policy  which  expediency  had  imposed  upon  the 
country.  In  1875  the  Treasury  was  authorized 
to  buy  specie  with  money  obtained  from  special 
bond  issues  and  to  use  it  for  the  redemption  of 
United  States  notes.  In  1878  it  was  ordered 
that  greenbacks  thus  redeemed  should  not  be 
destroyed,  but  reissued  and  kept  in  circulation. 
In  pursuance  of  this  policy  the  Treasury  created 
a  special  fund  designed  to  average  a  hundred 
million,  and  in  July,  1892,  it  was  fourteen 
million  above  that  sum.  Under  the  law  of  1890 
silver    was   purchased   with   notes   exchangeable 


1 893-]        T^fi^  Columbimi  Exposition.  291 

for  ''coin,"  a  word  held  by  the  Treasury  to  mean 
gold.  In  1890,  therefore,  there  were  in  circula- 
tion not  only  three  hundred  and  forty-six  millions 
of  greenbacks,  but  a  hundred  and  fifty  of  silver 
notes,  all  redeemable  in  gold,  and  the  latter  sum 
must  under  the  Sherman  law  rapidly  increase. 
The  price  per  ounce  of  silver  had  fallen  in  ten 
years  from  §1.30  to  $0.81,  and  the  intrinsic  value 
of  a  dollar  was  $0.67.  These  two  facts  made  our 
obligations  seem  strangely  disproportionate  to 
our  ability  to  meet  them;  foreigners  sold  our 
stocks  and  bonds  in  our  markets  and  our  own 
people  realized  on  their  securities  in  gold,  which 
they  hoarded.  The  reserve  fund  in  this  way 
began  to  shrink,  and  for  the  first  time  fell  below 
the  average,  reaching  ninety-seven  millions.  A 
disastrous  panic  was  the  result,  more  than 
three  hundred  banks  suspended,  manufactories 
shut  down,  and  there  was  widespread  distress. 
The  only  enterprise  of  importance  which  did  not 
seem  to  feel  the  depression  was  the  Columbian 
Exposition,  which  opened  May  ist,  1893,  and 
closed  October  30th,  after  a  career  of  brilliant 
and  unbroken  success. 

2.  The  Democrats  had  won  a  decided  victory 
Lllld  Congress,  and,    for    the   first   time 

Special  Session.  since    i86r,    Executive, 

House,  and  Senate  were  all  Dernocratic,^  the  lat- 

I  Senate,  Dem.  44,  Rep.  36,  People's  5,  three  vacancies ;  House,  Dem. 
2if,  Rep.  124,  People's  12,  one  vacancy. 


292  American  Politics.  [1^93 

ter  by  a  slight  and  somewhat  doubtful,  but  yet 
workable,  majority.  Yielding  to  a  general  de- 
mand for  the  repeal  of  the  silver  clause  in  the 
Sherman  Act  the  President  called  a  special 
session  of  Congress,  which  met  on  August  7th. 
Mr.  Crisp  was  re-elected  Speaker  of  the  House. 
The  people  of  the  States  and  Territories  whose 
prosperity  was  believed  to  depend  on  silver- 
mining  agitated  powerfully  to  create  a  senti- 
ment in  favor  of  the  free  coinage  of  silver  by  the 
United  States  mints,  in  case  the  purchase  clause 
of  the  Sherman  Act  should  be  repealed.  The 
struggle  in  Congress,  therefore,  was  long  and 
bitter,  but  on  November  ist  the  repeal  was 
passed.  By  this  time  the  panic  had  somewhat 
subsided,  but  there  w:is  no  revival  of  trade.  The 
only  other  completed  legislation  was  an  act 
further  restricting  Chinese  immigration.  Con- 
gress adjourned  on  November  3d. 

3.  The  first  regular  session  of  the  Fifty-third 
Congress  began  on  December  4th,  1893.  Inac- 
Lllld  Congress,  cordance  with  the  Demo- 

ist  Session.  cratic    platform,    a    new 

tariff  measure,  known  as  the  Wilson  Bill,  was 
at  once  introduced  into  the  House.  During  the 
debates  in  that  body  the  Senate  passed  a  bill, 
already  approved  by  the  House,  for  the  repeal 
of  the  Federal  Election  Laws,  and  thus  dis- 
appeared the  last  of  the  Reconstruction  meas- 
ures.     There   was   a   long  struggle  between   the 


1 894-]  Sales  of  Bonds.  293 

House  and  Senate  over  the  details  of  the  tariff 
legislation,  and  the  President  was  in  sympathy 
with  the  former.  As  finally  passed  on  August 
13th,  1894,  the  measure  reduced  the  rates  of 
duty  on  many  imports,  put  wool  on  the  free  list, 
and  diminished  the  tax  on  many  other  raw 
materials;  it  also  contained  a  provision  for  tax- 
ing incomes  over  §4000.  The  bill  became  a  law 
without  the  President's  signature,  and  in  the 
spring  of  1895  the  Supreme  Court  pronounced 
the  Income  Tax  unconstitutional.  Reciprocity 
was  abolished  except  in  so  far  as  consistent  with 
the  new  Act.  There  was  an  unsuccessful  effort 
to  compel  the  silver  coinage  of  the  Seignorage 
or  difference  in  value  between  the  cost  of  the 
silver  purchased  under  the  Sherman  Act  and  its 
coined  value.  Congress  adjourned  on  August 
28th,  1894. 

4.  Before  long  it  was  clear  that  the  system  of 
taxation  could  neither  maintain  the  gold  reserve 
nor  meet  current  expenses,  and  the  country  was 
greatly  agitated  by  Sales  of  Bonds,  ordered  by 
the  President.  There  were  four  such  sales — Jan- 
uary and  November,  1894,  February,  1895,  and 
January,  1896.  The  national  debt  was  thus  in- 
creased by  about  two  hundred  and  sixty-two 
millions.  The  Supreme  Court,  by  decision, 
ordered  the  restoration  to  the  Mormon  Church 
of  its  property  under  a  repeal  of  the  act  of 
Congress  confiscating  it,  and  amnesty  was    ex- 


294  American  Politics.  [1894 

tended  to  Mormons  who  had  been  guilty  of 
polygamy.  The  suffrage  was  given  to  women 
in  Colorado.  During  the  winter  of  1893-94 
"  Armies  of  the  unemployed  "  were  organized 
in  various  places  for  the  purpose  of  marching  on 
Washington  to  demand  aid  frohi  Congress.  One 
such  rabble,  numbering  about  350,  succeeded 
in  entering  Washington  but  they  were  checked 
by  the  police,  and  while  attempting  to  incite 
a  riot  the  leader  was  arrested.  Other  bands 
were  dispersed  in  their  efforts  to  steal  trans- 
portation from  the  railways.  There  was  a 
continuous  and  successful  effort  to  sustain 
the  Civil  Service  Commission  in  the  appli- 
cation and  extension  of  the  merit  system. 
Hostile  comment  was  aroused  by  the  appoint- 
ment to  a  diplomatic  position  of  one  who  had 
contributed  largely  to  the  Democratic  campaign 
fund,  but  the  contributor,  finding  himself  in  a 
false  position,  withdrew  his  name,  and  the  fear 
of  great  offices  being  virtually  at  the  disposal  of 
the  highest  bidder  subsided.  The  revolution  in 
Hawaii  having  been  completed,  the  Administra- 
tion began  a  careful  examination  of  the  facts,  and 
an  extended  report  on  the  situation  created  much 
opposition  to  annexation. 

5.  In  April  began  an  extensive  Strike  of  Coal 
Miners,  and  in  five  States  the  militia  were  called 
out  to  suppress  violence.  Federal  marshals  and 
troops  interfered  to  protect  the  railways.     Be- 


1 895-]  Strikes.  295 

fore  this  strike  was  successfully  ended  by  agree- 
ment in  June,  the  employees  of  the  Pullman 
Company  struck  against  a  reduction  of  wages  in 
May,  and  the  American  Railway  Union  took 
up  their  cause,  ordering  a  boycott  of  all  Pullman 
cars.  This  resulted  in  serious  interference  with 
railway  traffic  between  Chicago  and  .California. 
The  mails  being  delayed  by  the  serious  rioting 
and  destruction  of  property,  President  Cleveland 
sent  regulars  to  assist  the  militia,  and  proclaimed 
a  state  of  insurrection,  first  in  Illinois  and  after- 
ward in  the  district  further  west.  The  strike 
ended  on  August  3d,  and  the  action  of  the  Presi- 
dent, though  widely  discussed,  was  supported  by 
public  opinion  and  by  both  Houses  of  Congress. 
Offenders  were  indicted  for  rebellion  and  crimi- 
nal conspiracy.  In  January,  1895,  there  was  a 
serious  strike  of  the  street  railway  employees  of 
Brooklyn,  but  order  was  maintained  by  two 
brigades  of  militia.  A  commission  was  appointed 
by  the  President  to  investigate  the  Railway 
Strike;  it  recommended  a  permanent  strike  com- 
mission whose  decisions  should  be  enforcible  by 
the  courts.  The  indicted  labor  leaders  were 
sentenced  to  short  terms  in  jail.  The  "armies 
of  the  unemployed  "  steadily  disintegrated. 

6.   Congress    opened    on   December  3d,    1894, 

Lllld  Congress,  and  adjourned  on  March 

2d  Session.  3d,    1895.       There    was 

little   legislation   beyond    the     routine.       A   bill 


296  American  Politics.  [1895 

was  introduced  to  incorporate  a  company  for 
building  the  Nicaragua  Ship  Canal,  and  under 
its  provisions  the  United  States  were  to  guarantee 
its  bonds  and  hold  seventy  out  of  a  hundred 
millions  of  capital  stock.  The  friends  of  a  strong 
foreign  policy  secured  its  passage  in  the  Senate, 
but  it  was  not  taken  up  by  the  House.  The 
latter  passed  the  Compulsory  Arbitration  Bill 
without  division.  The  New  Navy  was  further 
increased  by  appropriations  for  two  first-class 
battle-ships.  The  total  appropriations  of  the 
Fifty-third  Congress  were  thirty-seven  millions 
less  than  those  of  its  predecessor,  the  difference 
being  largely  in  the  pension  account.  The 
Administration  made  two  energetic  efforts  to 
effect  a  Currency  Reform  by  disconnecting 
the  Treasury  from  any  issue  or  re-issue  of  legal- 
tender  notes.  Both  failed,  owing  to  the  opposi- 
tion of  those  who  favored  the  funding  of  the 
paper  currency.  The  New  York  sub-treasury 
was  within  twenty-four  hours  of  suspending  gold 
payments  when  the  second  bond  issue  was  taken 
up  by  a  syndicate  of  bankers  at  104^.  As  the 
price  of  these  bonds  in  the  public  market  rose 
almost  immediately  to  118,  violent  attacks  were 
made  on  the  transaction.  The  Deficit  in  the 
Revenue  continued,  and  there  was  a  growing 
sentiment,  in  Congress  and  out,  favoring  the  free 
coinage  of  silver. 

7.   The  State  elections  of  1894  gave  an  over- 


1 895-]     Venezuelan  Boundary  Dispute.         2gy 

whelming  triumph  to  the  Republicans,  not  only 
for  State  officers,  but  for  Congress.  The  officers 
of  a  secret  association,  founded  five  years  pre- 
viously to  resist  the  influence  of  foreigners  and, 
in  particular,  of  Roman  Catholics  upon  American 
life,  and  known  as  the  American  Protective 
Association,  claimed  this  result  as  in  part  due 
to  their  efforts.  But  this  was  problematical,  and 
neither  of  the  great  parties  was  willing  to 
affiliate  with  the  new  power. 

The  first  session  of  the  Fifty-fourth  Congress 
LIVth  Congress,  opened  on  December  2d, 

1st  Session.  and  the  House  organized 

by  electing  Thomas  B.  Reed  as  Speaker.^  The 
rules  were  so  adjusted  that,  in  case  a  quorum 
failed  to  vote,  the  sergeant-at-arms  could  bring 
absentees  before  the  House  until  the  clerk  noted 
a  sufficient  number  as  present.  The  Senate  re- 
organized its  committees  on  December  30th. 
The  most  important  question  was  the  Vene- 
zuelan Boundary  Dispute.  During  the  year 
this  difficulty  between  Great  Britain  and  Vene- 
zuela, which  was  of  fifty  years'  standing,  w^'s 
brought  to  "an  acute  stage  "  by  what  Venezuela 
claimed  were  encroachments  on  its  border  from 
the  side  of  British  Guiana.  A  long  diplomatic 
correspondence  between  our  Government  ard 
that  of  Great  Britain  on  the  question  of  our  atti- 

I  Senate,  Rep.  43,  Dem.  39,  Independents  6.     House,  Rep.  248,  Dein. 
104,  Independents  and  People's  7,  vacant  i. 


298  American  Politics.  [^895 

tude  under  the  Monroe  doctrine  ended  in  the 
appointment  of  a  commission  to  determine  the 
true  boundary  line  of  Venezuela,  and  a  declara- 
tion that  any  attempt  on  the  part  of  Great 
Britain  to  exercise  jurisdiction  within  such  a 
line  as  determined  would  be  regarded  by  the 
United  States  as  a  ''willful  aggression  upon  its 
rights  and  interests."  This  was  considered  at 
home  and  abroad  as  a  threat  of  war  and  created 
great  excitement.  The  correspondence  was  laid 
before  Congress  in  a  Presidential  message  dated 
December  17th.  The  war  scare  depressed  the 
money  markets  and  lowered  the  gold  reserve  ten 
millions  in  three  weeks,  and  a  new  bond  issue 
followed.  Congress  promptly  appropriated  funds 
for  the  commission,  and  abortive  attempts  were 
made  at  financial  legislation.  Equally  vain  were 
the  efforts  made  by  Congress  to  define  the 
Monroe  doctrine.  The  Cuban  Insurrection, 
which  had  broken  out  in  1894,  also  attracted 
attention,  and  resolutions  favoring  the  recog- 
nition of  belligerent  rights  for  the  rebels  passed 
both  Houses.  A  concurrent  resolution  was 
passed  urging  the  President^to  secure  their  rights 
to  unoffending  Christians  and  American  citizens 
in  Turkey;  this  was  due  to  the  outrages  in 
Armenia.  The  navy  appropriation  bill  provided 
for  three  new  battle-ships.  Congress  adjourned 
on  June  nth. 

8.   The  Venezuelan  boundary  dispute  was  set- 


1896.]  National  Conventions.  299 

tied  without  an  appeal  to  arms  by  an  agreement 
that,  except  in  cases  where  fifty  years'  occupation 
had  given  title  by  prescription,  all  the  territory 
in  dispute  should  be  submitted  to  arbitration. 
Simultaneously  negotiations  were  opened  for  a 
general  treaty  of  arbitration  between  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain,  and  just  before  the 
close  of  the  administration  such  a  treaty  was  laid 
before  the  Senate;  it  failed  of  ratification.  The 
claims  of  the  Canadian  sealers  were  adjusted 
under  the  award  of  the  court  on  June  3d.  Fre- 
quent efforts  being  made  by  civilians  to  furnish 
arms  to  the  Cuban  insurgents,  the  President 
announced  and  enforced  a  policy  of  strict  neu- 
trality. Utah  was  admitted  to  the  Union  by 
proclamation  in  January. 

9.  The  political  discussions  of  the  year  turned 
almost  exclusively  on  the  question  of  the  free 
coinage  of  silver.  When  the  Republican  Na- 
tional Convention  met  in  St.  Louis  on  June 
i6th,  the  platform  declared  in  favor  of  protec- 
tion and  reciprocity,  and  against  free  coinage, 
except  by  international  agreement.  Thirty-four 
opposing  delegates  withdrew.  William  McKin- 
ley  of  Ohio  was  nominated  for  President  on  the 
first  ballot,  and  Garrett  A.  Hobart  of  New  Jer- 
sey secured  the  nomination  for  Vice-President. 
The  Democratic  National  Convention  met  in 
Chicago  on  July  7th.  The  great  majority  of  the 
delegates  favored   free   coinage,    and  a   call  for 


300  American  Politics,  [1896 

that  measure  was  embodied  in  the  platform. 
W.  J.  Bryan  of  Nebraska  was  nominated  for 
President  on  the  fifth  ballot,  and  Arthur  Sewall 
of  Maine  was  nominated  for  Vice-President. 
Both  parties  incorporated  other  '*  planks "  in 
their  platform,  but  the  only  real  issue  in  the 
election  was  the  free  coinage  of  silver.  The 
National  Convention  of  the  People's  Party 
met  at  St.  Louis  on  July  22d,  and  after  discuss- 
ing a  coalition  with  the  Democrats,  rejected 
Sewall's  candidacy  as  that  of  a  capitalist:  they 
then  nominated  Thomas  E.  Watson  of  Georgia 
for  Vice-President,  and  indorsed  the  nom'ination 
of  Bryan  for  President.  The  platform  was  sub- 
stantially that  of  the  Democrats.  The  managers 
arranged  for  fusion  with  the  Democrats  on  the 
election  tickets,  so  that  all  votes  for  President 
should  go  to  Bryan,  three-fifths  of  those  for  Vice- 
President  to  Sewall,  and  the  other  two-fifths 
to  Watson.  In  consequence  of  the  platform 
adopted  at  Chicago,  the  so-called  ''sound- 
money  "  Democrats  held  a  Convention  of  the 
''National  Democratic  Party"  at  Indian- 
apolis on  September  2d,  declared  for  a  single 
gold  standard  of  monetary  measure,  and  unani- 
mously nominated  J.  M.  Palmer  of  Illinois  and 
S.  B.  Buckner  of  Kentucky  for  President  and 
Vice-President  respectively.  The  Prohibition 
National  Convention  met  at  Pittsburgh  on 
May  2d,  and  nominated  as  its  candidates   Joshua 


1896.]  Relations  ivitJi  Spain.  30 1 

Levering  of  Maryland  and  Hale  Johnson  of  Illi- 
nois. There  was  a  discussion  as  to  approving 
free  coinage,  which  resulted  in  a  division,  and 
the  minority  nominated  Charles  E.  Bentley  of 
Nebraska  for  President  and  J.  H.  Southgate  of 
North  Carolina  for  Vice-President.  The  Social- 
ist Labor  Party  met  at  New  York  on  July  9th, 
and  nominated  Charles  H.  Matchett  of  New 
York  for  President,  with  Matthew  Maguire  of 
New  Jersey  for  Vice-President.  The  ensuing 
campaign  was  conducted  amid  great  excitement 
as  a  campaign  of  education.  The  election  re- 
sulted in  the  success  of  the  Republicans  by  a 
majority  of  95  in  the  Electoral  College. 

10.   The    Second    Session  of   the    Fifty-fourth 
LIVth  Congress,         Congress  opened  on  De- 
2d  Session.  cember  7th.     The  Presi- 

dent's message  called  attention  to  our  Relations 
with  Spain  and  Cuba,  indicating  that  the 
nature  of  the  struggle  might  eventually  compel 
us  to  overlook  our  obligations  to  Spain  for  the 
sake  of  higher  ones.  This  tempted  the  friends 
of  Cuba  to  force  an  issue  in  Congress,  but  the 
effort  was  fruitless.  There  was  little  legislation 
of  the  first  importance,  even  the  appropriation 
bills  failed  to  pass  in  their  entirety.  This  was 
due  to  the  determination  of  McKinley,  which 
was  well  known,  to  call  an  extra  session  of  the 
next  Congress  as  soon  as  possible  after  his  in- 
auguration.     An    Immigration    Bill   passed   both 


302  American  Politics,  [1897 

Houses,  but  was  vetoed  by  the  President.  The 
Nicaragua  Canal  Bill  was  withdrawn.  Congress 
adjourned  on  March  4th,  and  McKinley  and 
Hobart  were  sworn  into  office.' 


I  Popular  vote  for  President  in  1896  :     Rep.  7,105,729,    Dem.   and  Peo- 
ple's 6,491,977,  Nat.  Dem.  133,554,  Prohib.  142,491,  Social.  Labor  39,222. 


APPENDIX  A. 
Articles  of  Confederation. 

Articles  of  Confederation  and  Perpetual  Union 
between  the  States  of  New  Hampshire,  Massa- 
chusetts Bay,  Rhode  Island  and  Providence 
Plantations,  Connecticut,  JVew  York,  JVew  Jer- 
sey, Pennsylvania,  Delaware^  Maryland,  Vir- 
ginia^ North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  and 
Georgia. 
Article  I. — The  style  of  this  Confederacy  shall 
be,  "  The  United  States  of  America." 

Article  II. — Each  State  retains  its  sovereignty, 
freedom,  and  independence,  and  every  power, 
jurisdiction,  and  right,  which  is  not  by  this  Con- 
federation expressly  delegated  to  the  United  States 
in  Congress  assembled. 

Article  III. — The  said  States  hereby  severally 
enter  into  a  firm  league  ot  friendship  with  each 
other,  for  their  common  defense,  the  security  of 
their  liberties,  and  their  mutual  and  general  wel- 
fare, binding  themselves  to  assist  each  other  against 
all  force  offered  to  or  attacks  made  upon  them,  or 
any  of  them,  on  account  of  religion,  sovereignty, 
trade,  or  any  other  pretense  whatever. 

303 


304  Appendix  A. 

Article  IV. — The  better  to  secure  and  perpet- 
uate iiu.tiial  friendship  and  intercourse  among  the 
people  of  the  different  States  in  this  Union,  the 
free  inhabitants  of  each  of  these  States,  paupers, 
vagabonds,  and  fugitives  from  justice  excepted, 
shall  be  entitled  to  all  privileges  and  immunities  of 
free  citizens  in  the  several  States  ;  and  the  people 
of  each  State  shall  have  free  ingress  and  regress  to 
and  from  any  other  State,  and  shall  enioy  therein 
all  the  privileges  of  trade  and  commerce  subject  to 
the  same  duties,  impositions  and  restrictions  as 
the  inhabitants  thereof  respectively  ;  provided  that 
such  restrictions  shall  not  extend  so  far  as  to  pre- 
vent the  removal  of  property  imported  into  any 
State  to  any  other  State  of  which  the  owner  is  an 
inhabitant ;  provided  also,  that  no  imposition, 
duties,  or  restriction  shall  be  laid  by  any  State  on 
the  property  of  the  United  States  or  either  of  them. 
If  any  person  guilty  of,  or  charged  with,  treason, 
felony,  or  other  high  misdemeanor  in  any  State 
shall  flee  from  justice  and  be  found  in  any  of  the 
United  States,  he  shall,  upon  demand  of  the  gover- 
nor or  executive  power  of  the  State  from  which  he 
fled,  be  delivered  up  and  removed  to  the  State 
naving  jurisdiction  of  his  offense.  Full  faith  and 
credit  shall  be  given  in  each  of  these  States  to  the 
records,  acts,  and  judicial  proceedings  of  the  courts 
and  magistrates  of  every  other  State. 

Article  V. — For  the  more  convenient  manage- 
ment   of    the    general    interests    of    the    United 


Articles  of  Confederation,  305 

States,  delegates  shall  be  annually  appointed  in 
such  manner  as  the  Legislature  of  each  State  shall 
direct,  to  meet  in  Congress  on  the  first  Monday  in 
November,  in  every  year,  vnth  a  power  reserved  to 
each  State  to  recall  its  delegates,  or  any  of  them, 
at  any  time  within  the  year,  and  to  send  others  in 
their  stead  for  the  remainder  of  the  year.  No 
State  shall  be  represented  in  Congress  by  less  than 
two,  nor  by  more  than  seven  members  ;  and  no 
person  shall  be  capable  of  being  a  delegate  for 
more  than  three  years  in  any  term  of  six  years  ; 
nor  shall  any  person,  being  a  delegate,  be  capable 
of  holding  any  office  under  the  United  States  for 
which  he,  or  another  for  his  benefit,  receives  any 
salary,  fees,  or  emolument  of  any  kind.  Each 
State  shall  maintain  its  own  delegates  in  any  meet- 
ing of  the  States  and  while  they  act  as  members  of 
the  Committee  of  the  States.  In  determining 
questions  in  the  United  States  in  Congress  assem- 
bled, each  State  shall  have  one  vote.  Freedom  of 
speech  and  debate  in  Congress  shall  not  be  im- 
peached or  questioned  in  any  court  or  place  out  of 
Congress  ;  and  the  members  of  Congress  shall  be 
protected  in  their  persons  from  arrests  and  impris- 
onment during  the  time  of  their  going  to  and 
from,  and  attendance  on,  Congress,  except  for 
treason,  felony,  or  breach  of  the  peace. 

Article  VI. — No  State,  without  the  consent  of 
the  United  States,  in  Congress  assembled,  shall 
send  any  embassy  to,  or  receive  any  embassy  from, 


3o6  Appendix  A. 

or  enter  into  any  conference,  agreement,  alliance, 
or  treaty  with  any  king,  prince,  or  state  ;  nor  shall 
any  person  holding  any  office  of  profit  or  trust 
under  the  United  States,  or  any  of  them,  accept  of 
any  present,  emolument,  office,  or  title  of  any  kind 
whatever  from  any  king,  prince,  or  foreign  state  ; 
nor  shall  the  United  States,  in  Congress  assembled, 
or  any  of  them,  grant  any  title  of  nobility. 

No  two  or  more  States  shall  enter  into  any 
treaty,  confederation,  or  alliance  whatever  between 
them,  without  the  consent  of  the  United  States,  in 
Congress  assembled,  specifying  accurately  the  pur- 
poses for  which  the  same  is  to  be  entered  into,  and 
how  long  it  shall  continue. 

No  State  shall  lay  any  imposts  or  duties  which 
may  interfere  with  any  stipulations  in  treaties 
entered  into  by  the  United  States,  in  Congress 
assembled,  with  any  king,  prince,  or  state,  in  pur- 
suance of  any  treaties  already  proposed  by  Con- 
gress to  the  courts  of  France  and  Spain. 

No  vessels  of  war  shall  be  kept  up  in  time  of 
peace  by  any  State,  except  such  number  only  as 
shall  be  deemed  necessary  by  the  United  States,  in 
Congress  assembled,  for  the  defense  of  such  State 
or  its  trade,  nor  shall  any  body  of  forces  he  kept 
up  by  any  State  in  time  of  peace,  except  such  num- 
ber only  as,  in  the  judgment  of  the  United  States, 
in  Congress  assembled,  shall  be  deemed  requisite 
to  garrison  the  forts  necessary  for  the  defense  of 
such  State  ;  but  every  State  shall  always  keep  up  a 


Articles  of  Confederation,  307 

well-regulated  and  disciplined  militia,  sufficiently 
armed  and  accoutered,  and  shall  provide  and  con- 
stantly have  ready  for  use  in  public  stores  a  due 
number  of  field-pieces  and  tents,  and  a  proper 
quantity  of  arms,  ammunition  and  camp  equipage. 

No  State  shall  engage  in  any  war  without  the 
consent  of  the  United  States,  in  Congress  assem- 
bled, unless  such  State  be  actually  invaded  by  ene- 
mies, or  shall  have  received  certain  advice  of  a 
resolution  being  formed  by  some  nation  of  Indians 
to  invade  such  State,  and  the  danger  is  so  immi- 
nent as  not  to  admit  of  a  delay  till  the  United 
States,  in  Congress  assembled,  can  be  consulted  -; 
nor  shall  any  State  grant  commissions  to  any  ships 
or  vessels  of  war,  nor  letters  of  marque  or  reprisal,, 
except  it  be  after  a  declaration  of  war  by  the 
United  States,  in  Congress  assembled,  and  therk 
only  against  the  kingdom  or  state,  and  the  subjects 
thereof,  against  which  war  has  been  so  declared,, 
and  under  such  regulations  as  shall  be  established 
by  the  United  States,  in  Congress  assembled,, 
unless  such  State  be  infested  by  pirates,  in  which 
case  vessels  of  war  may  be  fitted  out  for  that  occa- 
sion, and  kept  so  long  as  the  danger  shall  continue, 
or  until  the  United  States,  in  Congress  assembled, 
shall  determine  otherwise. 

Article  VII. — When  land  forces  are  raised  by 
any  State  for  the  common  defense,  all  officers  of  or 
under  the  rank  of  Colonel  shall  be  appointed  by  the 
Legislature   of   each  State   respectively  by  whom 


3o8  Appendix  A. 

such  forces  shall  be  raised,  or  in  such  manner  as 
such  State  shall  direct,  and  all  vacancies  shall  be 
filled  up  by  the  State  which  first  made  the  appoint- 
ment. 

Article  VIII. — All  charges  of  war,  and  all 
other  expenses  that  shall  be  incurred  for  the  com- 
mon defense  or  general  welfare,  and  allowed  by 
the  United  States,  in  Congress  assembled,  shall  be 
defrayed  out  of  a  common  treasury,  which  shall  be 
supplied  by  the  several  States  in  proportion  to  the 
value  of  land  within  each  State,  granted  to,  or  sur- 
veyed for,  any  person,  as  such  land  and  the  build- 
ings and  improvements  thereon  shall  be  estimated, 
according  to  such  mode  as  the  United  States,  in 
Congress  assembled,  shall,  from  time  to  time,  direct 
and  appoint.  The  taxes  for  paying  that  proportion 
shall  be  laid  and  levied  by  the  authority  and  direc- 
tion of  the  Legislatures  of  the  several  States, 
within  the  time  agreed  upon  by  the  United  States, 
in  Congress  assembled. 

Article  IX. — The  United  States,  in  Congress 
assembled,  shall  have  the  sole  and  exclusive  right 
and  power  of  determining  on  peace  and  war,  except 
in  the  cases  mentioned  in  the  sixth  Article  ;  of 
■sending  and  receiving  ambassadors  ;  entering  into 
treaties  and  alliances,  provided  that  no  treaty  of 
'Commerce  shall  be  made,  whereby  the  legislative 
power  of  the  respective  States  shall  be  restrained 
from  imposing  such  imposts  and  duties  on  foreign- 
«rs  as  their  own  people  are  subjected  to,  or  from 


Articles  of  Confederation,  309 

prohibiting  the  exportation  or  importation  of  any 
species  of  goods  or  commodities  whatever ;  of 
estabUshing  rules  for  deciding,  in  all  cases,  what 
captures  on  land  and  water  shall  be  legal,  and  in 
what  manner  prizes  taken  by  land  or  naval  forces 
in  the  service  of  the  United  States  shall  be  divided 
or  appropriated  ;  of  granting  letters  of  marque  and 
reprisal  in  times  of  peace  ;  appointing  courts  for 
the  trial  of  piracies  and  felonies  committed  on  the 
high  seas  ;  and  establishing  courts  for  receiving 
and  determining  finally  appeals  in  all  cases  of  cap- 
tures ;  provided  that  no  member  of  Congress  shall 
be  appointed  a  judge  of  any  of  the  said  courts. 

The  United  States,  in  Congress  assembled,  shall 
also  be  the  last  resort  on  appeal  in  all  disputes  and 
differences  now  subsisting,  or  that  hereafter  may 
arise  between  two  or  more  States  concerning 
boundary,  jurisdiction,  or  any  other  cause  what- 
ever ;  which  authority  shall  always  be  exercised  in 
the  manner  following  :  Whenever  the  legislative 
or  executive  authority,  or  lawful  agent  of  any 
State  in  controversy  with  another,  shall  present  a 
petition  to  Congress,  stating  the  matter  in  question, 
and  praying  for  a  hearing,  notice  thereof  shall  be 
given  by  order  of  Congress  to  the  legislative  or 
executive  authority  of  the  other  State  in  contro- 
versy, and  a  day  assigned  for  the  appearance  of 
the  parties  by  their  lawful  agents,  who  shall  then 
be  directed  to  appoint,  by  joint  consent,  commis- 
sioners or  judges  to  constitute  a  court  for  hearing 


310  Appendix  A. 

and  determining  the  matter  in  question  ;  but  if 
they  cannot  agree,  Congress  shall  name  three  per- 
sons out  of  each  of  the  United  States,  and  from 
the  list  of  such  persons  each  party  shall  alternately 
strike  out  one,  the  petitioners  beginning,  until  the 
number  shall  be  reduced  to  thirteen  ;  and  from 
that  number  not  less  than  seven  nor  more  than  nine 
names,  as  Congress  shall  direct,  shall,  in  the  pres- 
ence of  Congress,  be  drawn  out  by  lot  ;  and  the 
persons  whose  names  shall  be  so  drawn,  or  any  five  of 
them,  shall  be  commissioners  or  judges,  to  hear 
and  finally  determine  the  controversy,  so  always  as 
a  major  part  of  the  judges  who  shall  hear  the 
cause  shall  agree  in  the  determination ;  and  if 
either  party  shall  neglect  to  attend  at  the  day 
appointed,  without  showing  reasons  which  Congress 
shall  judge  sufficient,  or  being  present,  shall  refuse 
to  strike,  the  Congress  shall  proceed  to  nominate 
three  persons  out  of  each  State,  and  the  secretary 
of  Congress  shall  strike  in  behalf  of  such  party 
absent  or  refusing  ;  and  the  judgment  and  sentence 
of  the  court,  to  be  appointed  in  the  manner  before 
prescribed,  shall  be  final  and  conclusive  ;  and  if 
any  of  the  parties  shall  refuse  to  submit  to  the 
authority  of  such  court,  or  to  appear  or  defend 
their  claim  or  cause,  the  court  shall  nevertheless 
proceed  to  pronounce  sentence  or  judgment,  which 
shall  in  like  manner  be  final  and  decisive  ;  the 
judgment  or  sentence  and  other  proceedings  being 
in  either  case  transmitted  to  Congress,  and  lodged 


Articles  of  Confederatio7i.  311 

among  the  acts  of  Congress  for  the  security  of  the 
parties  concerned  ;  provided,  that  every  commis- 
sioner, before  he  sits  in  judgment,  shall  take  an 
oath,  to  be  administered  by  one  of  the  judges  of 
the  supreme  or  superior  court  of  the  State  where 
the  cause  shall  be  tried,  "  well  and  truly  to  hear 
and  determine  the  matter  in  question,  according  to 
the  best  of  his  judgment,  without  favor,  affection, 
or  hope  of  reward."  Provided,  also,  that  no  State 
shall  be  deprived  of  territory  for  the  benefit  of  the 
United  States. 

All  controversies  concerning  the  private  right  of 
soil  claimed  under  different  grants  of  two  or  more 
States,  whose  jurisdictions,  as  they  may  respect 
such  lands  and  the  State  which  passed  such  grants 
are  adjusted,  the  said  grants  or  either  of  them  being 
at  the  same  time  claimed  to  have  originated  antece- 
dent to  such  settlement  of  jurisdiction,  shall,  on  the 
petition  of  either  party  to  the  Congress  of  the 
United  States,  be  finally  determined,  as  near  as 
may  be,  in  the  same  manner  as  is  before  prescribed 
for  deciding  disputes  respecting  territorial  juris- 
diction between  different  States. 

The  United  States,  in  Congress  assembled,  shall 
also  have  the  sole  and  conclusive  right  and  power 
of  regulating  the  alloy  and  value  of  coin  struck  by 
their  own  authority,  or  by  that  of  the  respective 
States  ;  fixing  the  standard  of  weights  and  meas- 
ures throughout  the  United  States  ;  regulating 
the    trade    and    managing    all    affairs   with    the 


312  Appendix  A, 

Indians,  not  members  of  any  of  the  States ; 
provided  that  the  legislative  right  of  any  State, 
within  its  own  limits,  be  not  infringed  or  violated  ; 
establishing  and  regulating  post  offices  from  one 
State  to  another,  throughout  all  the  United  States, 
and  exacting  such  postage  on  the  papers  passing 
through  the  same  as  may  be  requisite  to  defray  the 
expenses  of  the  said  office  ;  appointing  all  officers 
of  the  land  forces  in  the  service  of  the  United 
States,  excepting  regimental  officers  ;  appointing 
all  the  officers  of  the  naval  forces,  and  commission- 
ing all  officers  whatever  in  the  service  of  the  United 
States  ;  making  rules  for  the  government  and  regu- 
iation  of  the  said  land  and  naval  forces,  and 
directing  their  operations. 

The  United  States,  in  Congress  assembled,  shall 
have  authority  to  appoint  a  committee,  to  sit  in  the 
recess  of  Congress,  to  be  denominated,  "  A  Com- 
mittee of  the  States,"  and  to  consist  of  one  dele- 
gate from  each  State,  and  to  appoint  such  other 
committes  and  civil  officers  as  may  be  necessary 
for  managing  the  general  affairs  of  the  United 
States  under  their  direction  ;  to  appoint  one  of 
their  number  to  preside  ;  provided  that  no  person 
be  allowed  to  serve  in  the  office  of  president  more 
than  one  year  in  any  term  of  three  years  ;  to  ascer- 
tain the  necessary  sums  of  money  to  be  raised  for 
the  service  of  the  United  States,  and  to  appropriate 
and  apply  the  same  for  defraying  the  public  expen- 
ses ;  to  borrow  money  or  emit  bills  on  the  credit 


Articles  of  Confederation,  313 

of  the  United  States,  transmitting  every  half  year 
to  the  respective  States  an  account  of  the  sums  of 
money  so  borrowed  or  emitted  ;  to  build  and  equip 
a  navy  ;  to  agree  upon  the  number  of  land  forces, 
and  to  make  requisitions  from  each  State  for  its 
quota,  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  white  inhabi- 
tants in  such  State,  which  requisition  shall  be  bind- 
ing ;  and  thereupon  the  Legislature  of  each  State 
shall  appoint  the  regimental  officers,  raise  the  men, 
and  clothe,  arm,  and  equip  them  in  a  soldier-like 
manner,  at  the  expense  of  the  United  States  ;  and 
the  officers  and  men  so  clothed,  armed,  and 
equipped,  shall  march  to  the  place  appointed,  and 
within  the  time  agreed  on  by  the  United  States,  in 
Congress  assembled  ;  but  if  the  United  States,  in 
Congress  assembled,  shall,  on  consideration  of 
circumstances,  judge  proper  that  any  State  should 
not  raise  men,  or  should  raise  a  smaller  number 
than  its  quota,  and  that  any  other  State  should 
raise  a  greater  number  of  men  than  the  quota 
thereof,  such  extra  number  shall  be  raised,  offi- 
cered, clothed,  armed,  and  equipped  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  quota  of  such  State,  unless  the 
Legislature  of  such  State  shall  judge  that  such 
extra  number  can  not  be  safely  spared  out  of  the 
same,  in  which  case  they  shall  raise,  officer,  clothe, 
arm,  and  equip  as  many  of  such  extra  number  as 
they  judge  can  be  safely  spared,  and  the  officers 
and  men  so  clothed,  armed,  and  equipped  shall 
march  to  the  place  appointed,  and  within  the  time 


314  Appendix  A. 

agreed  on  by  the  United  States,  in  Congress 
assembled. 

The  United  States,  in  Congress  assembled,  shall 
never  engage  in  war,  nor  grant  letters  of  marque 
and  reprisal  in  time  of  peace,  nor  enter  into  any 
treaties  or  alliances,  nor  coin  money,  nor  regulate 
the  value  thereof,  nor  ascertain  the  sums  and  ex- 
penses necessary  for  the  defense  and  welfare  of  the 
United  States,  or  any  of  them,  nor  emit  bills,  nor 
borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  United  States, 
nor  appropriate  money,  nor  agree  upon  the  num- 
ber of  vessels  of  war  to  be  built  or  purchased,  or 
the  number  of  land  or  sea  forces  to  be  raised,  nor 
appoint  a  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  or  navy, 
unless  nine  States  assent  to  the  same,  nor  shall  a 
question  on  any  other  point,  except  for  adjourning 
from  day  to  day,  be  determined,  unless  by  the 
votes  of  a  majority  of  the  United  States,  in  Con- 
gress assembled. 

The  Congress  of  the  United  States  shall  have 
power  to  adjourn  to  any  time  within  the  year,  and 
to  any  place  within  the  United  States,  so  that  no 
period  of  adjournment  be  for  a  longer  duration 
than  the  space  of  six  months,  and  shall  publish 
the  journal  of  their  proceedings  monthly,  except 
such  parts  thereof  relating  to  treaties,  alliances, 
or  military  operations  as  in  their  judgment  require 
secrecy ;  and  the  yeas  and  nays  of  the  delegates 
of  each  State,  on  any  question,  shall  be  entered 
on  the  journal  when  it  is  desired  by  any  delegate  ; 


Articles  of  Coufcderation.  315 

and  the  delegates  of  a  State,  or  any  of  them, 
at  his  or  their  request,  shall  be  furnished  with  a 
transcript  of  the  said  journal,  except  such  parts  as 
are  above  excepted,  to  lay  before  the  Legislatures 
of  the  several  States, 

Article  X. — The  Committee  of  the  States,  or 
any  nine  of  them,  shall  be  authorized  to  execute,  in 
the  recess  of  Congress,  such  of  the  powers  of  Con- 
gress as  the  United  States,  in  Congress  assembled, 
by  the  consent  of  nine  States,  shall,  from  time  to 
time,  think  expedient  to  vest  them  with  ;  provided 
that  no  power  be  delegated  to  the  said  Committee, 
for  the  exercise  of  which,  by  the  Articles  of  Con- 
federation, the  voice  of  nine  States  in  the  Congress 
of  the  United  States  as  assembled  is  requisite. 

Article  XI. — Canada,  acceding  to  this  Confed- 
eration, and  joining  in  the  measures  of  the  United 
States,  shall  be  admitted  into,  and  entitled  to,  all 
the  advantages  of  this  Union  ;  but  no  other  colony 
shall  be  admitted  into  the  same,  unless  such  ad- 
mission be  agreed  to  by  nine  States. 

Article  XII. — All  bills  of  credit  emitted,  mon- 
eys borrowed,  and  debts  contracted  by  or  under  the 
authority  of  Congress,  before  the  assembling  of  the 
United  States,  in  pursuance  of  the  present  Confed- 
eration, shall  be  deemed  and  considered  as  a  charge 
against  the  United  States,  for  payment  and  satis- 
faction whereof  the  said  United  States  and  the 
public  faith  are  hereby  solemnly  pledged. 

Article  XIII. — Every  State  shall  abide  by  the 


3i6  Appendix  A, 

determination  of  the  United  States,  in  Congress 
assembled,  on  all  questions  which  by  this  Confed- 
eration are  submitted  to  them.  And  the  Articles 
of  this  Confederation  shall  be  inviolably  observed 
by  every  State,  and  the  Union  shall  be  perpetual ; 
nor  shall  any  alteration  at  any  time  hereafter  be 
made  in  any  of  them,  unless  such  alteration  be 
agreed  to  in  a  Congress  of  the  United  States,  and 
be  afterwards  confirmed  by  the  Legislatures  of 
every  State. 

And  whereas  it  hath  pleased  the  great  Gover- 
nor of  the  world  to  incline  the  hearts  of  the  Legis- 
latures we  respectively  represent  in  Congress  to 
approve  of,  and  to  authorize  us  to  ratify,  the  said 
Articles  of  Confederation  and  perpetual  Union, 
know  ye,  that  we,  the  undersigned  delegates,  by 
virtue  of  the  power  and  authority  to  us  given  for 
that  purpose,  do,  by  these  presents,  in  the  name 
and  in  behalf  of  our  respective  constituents,  fully 
and  entirely  ratify  and  confirm  each  and  every  of 
the  said  Articles  of  Confederation  and  perpetual 
Union,  and  all  and  singular  the  matters  and  things 
contained.  And  we  do  further  solemnly  plight  and 
engage  the  faith  of  our  respective  constituents, 
that  they  shall  abide  by  the  determinations  of  the 
United  States,  in  Congress  assembled,  on  all  ques- 
tions which  by  the  said  Confederation  are  submit- 
ted to  them  ;  and  that  the  Articles  thereof  shall  be 
inviolably  observed  by  the  States  we  respectively 
represent,  and  that  the  Union  shall  be  perpetual, 


Articles  of  Confederation,  317 

In  witness  v/hereof,  we  have  hereunto  set  our  hands 
in  Congress.  Done  at  Philadelphia,  in  the  State  of 
Pennsylvania,  the  ninth  day  of  July,  in  the  year  of 
our  Lord  1778,  and  in  the  third  year  of  the  Inde- 
pendence of  America. 


APPENDIX  B. 

Constitution   of  the   United  States  of 
America. 

Preamble.* 

We  the  people  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to 
form  a  more  perfect  union,  establish  justice,  insure 
domestic  tranquillity,  provide  for  the  common  de- 
fence, promote  the  general  welfare,  and  secure  the 
blessings  of  liberty  to  ourselves  and  our  posterity, 
do  ordain  and  establish  this  Constitution  for  the 
United  States  of  America. 

Article  I.     Legislative  Department. 
Section  I.     Cofigress  in  General? 

All  legislative  powers  herein  granted  shall  be 
vested  in  a  Congress  of  the  United  States,  which 
shall  consist  of  a  Senate  and  House  of  Represen- 
tatives. 

Section  II.     House  of  Representatives. 
I.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  be  com- 
posed of  members  chosen  every  second  year  by  the 
people  of  the  several   States,    and  the  electors  in 

I  Compare  the  Preamble  with  Confederation  Articles  I  and  III. 
s  Compare  Article  I,  §§  I-VII  with  Confed.  Article  V. 


320  Appejidix  B. 

each  State  shall  have  the  qualifications  requisite 
for  electors  of  the  most  numerous  branch  of  the 
State  Legislature. 

2.  No  person  shall  be  a  representative  who  shall 
not  have  attained  to  the  age  of  twenty-five  years, 
and  been  seven  years  a  citizen  of  the  United  States, 
and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant 
of  that  State  in  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

3.  Representatives  and  direct  taxes  shall  be  ap- 
portioned among  the  several  States  which  may 
be  included  within  this  Union,  according  to  their 
respective  numbers,  which  shall  be  determined  by 
adding  to  the  whole  number  of  free  persons,  includ- 
ing those  bound  to  service  for  a  term  of  years,  and 
excluding  Indians  not  taxed,  three-fifths  of  all  other 
persons.  The  actual  enumeration  shall  be  made 
within  three  years  after  the  first  meeting  of  the 
Congress  of  the  United  States,  and  within  every  sub- 
sequent term  of  ten  years,  in  such  manner  as  they 
shall  by  law  direct.  The  number  of  representatives 
shall  not  exceed  one  for  every  thirty  thousand, 
but  each  State  shall  have  at  least  one  representa- 
tive ;  and  until  such  enumeration  shall  be  made, 
the  State  of  New  Hampshire  shall  be  entitled  to 
choose  three,  Massachusetts  eight,  Rhode  Island 
and  Providence  Plantations  one,  Connecticut  five, 
New  York  six.  New  Jersey  four,  Pennsylvania  eight, 
Delaware  one,  Maryland  six,  Virginia  ten.  North 
Carolina  five,  South  Carolina  five,  and  Georgia 
three. 


The  Constitution.  32 1 

4.  When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation 
from  any  State,  the  executive  authority  thereof  shall 
issue  writs  of  election  to  fill  such  vacancies. 

5.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose 
their  speaker  and  other  officers,  and  shall  have  the 
sole  power  of  impeachment. 

Section  III.     Senate. 

1.  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  com- 
posed of  two  senators  from  each  State,  chosen  by 
the  Legislature  thereof  for  six  years,  and  each  sen- 
ator shall  have  one  vote. 

2.  Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled  in 
consequence  of  the  first  election,  they  shall  be  di- 
vided, as  equally  as  may  be,  into  three  classes.  The 
seats  of  the  senators  of  the  first  class  shall  be  va- 
cated at  the  expiration  of  the  second  year,  of  the 
second  class  at  the  expiration  of  the  fourth  year, 
and  of  the  third  class  at  the  expiration  of  the  sixth 
year,  so  that  one-third  may  be  chosen  every  second 
year  ;  and  if  vacancies  happen,  by  resignation  or 
otherwise,  during  the  recess  of  the  Legislature  of 
any  State,  the  executive  thereof  may  make  tempo- 
rary appointments  until  the  next  meeting  of  the 
Legislature,  which  shall  then  fill  such  vacancies. 

3.  No  person  shall  be  a  senator  who  shall  not  have 
attained  to  the  age  of  thirty  years,  and  been  nine 
years  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  who  shall 
not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State  for 
which  he  shall  be  chosen. 


322  Appendix  B. 

4.  The  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  shall 
be  President  of  the  Senate,  but  shall  have  no  vote, 
unless  they  be  equally  divided. 

5.  The  Senate  shall  choose  their  other  officers, 
and  also  a  president/;-^  tempore,  in  the  absence  of 
the  Vice-President,  or  when  he  shall  exercise  the 
office  of  President  of  the  United  States. 

6.  The  Senate  shall  have  the  sole  power  to  try  all 
impeachments.  When  sitting  for  that  purpose,  they 
shall  be  on  oath  or  affirmation.  When  the  President 
of  the  United  States  is  tried,  the  chief  justice  shall 
preside  :  and  no  person  shall  be  convicted  without 
the  concurrence  of  two-thirds  of  the  members 
present. 

7.  Judgment  in  cases  of  impeachment  shall  not 
extend  further  than  to  removal  from  office,  and  dis- 
qualification to  hold  and  enjoy  any  office  of  honor, 
trust,  or  profit  under  the  United  States  :  but  the 
party  convicted  shall  nevertheless  be  liable  and 
subject  to  indictment,  trial,  judgment,  and  punish- 
ment, according  to  law. 

Section  IV.     Both  Houses. 

1.  The  times,  places,  and  manner  of  holding  elec- 
tions for  senators  and  representatives  shall  be  pre- 
scribed in  each  State  by  the  Legislature  thereof  ; 
but  the  Congress  may  at  any  time,  by  law,  make  or 
alter  such  regulations,  except  as  to  the  place  of 
choosing  senators. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once  in 


The   Constitution.  323 

every  year,  and  such  meeting  shall  be  on  the  first 
Monday  in  December,  unless  they  shall  by  law 
appoint  a  different  day. 

Section  V.      The  Houses  Separately. 

1.  Each  house  shall  be  the  judge  of  the  elections, 
returns,  and  qualifications  of  its  own  members,  and 
a  majority  of  each  shall  constitute  a  quorum  to  do 
business  ;  but  a  smaller  number  may  adjourn  from 
day  to  day,  and  may  be  authorized  to  compel  the 
attendance  of  absent  members,  in  such  manner  and 
under  such  penalties  as  each  house  may  provide. 

2.  Each  house  may  determine  the  rules  of  its 
proceedings,  punish  its  members  for  disorderly 
behavior,  and,  with  the  concurrence  of  two-thirds, 
expel  a  member. 

3.  Each  house  shall  keep  a  journal  of  its  proceed- 
ings, and  from  time  to  time  publish  the  same, 
excepting  such  parts  as  may  in  their  judgment  re- 
quire secrecy;  and  the  yeas  and  nays  of  the  mem- 
bers of  either  house,  on  any  question,  shall,  at  the 
desire  of  one-fifth  of  those  present,  be  entered  on 
the  journal. 

4.  Neither  house  during  the  session  of  Congress 
shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  other,  adjourn  for 
more  than  three  days,  nor  to  any  other  place  than 
that  in  which  the  two  houses  shall  be  sitting. 

Section  VI.     Disabilities  of  Members. 
I.  The  senators  and  representatives  shall  receive 
a  compensation  for  their  services,  to  be  ascertained 


3-4  Appendix  B. 

by  law,  and  paid  out  of  the  treasury  of  the  United 
States.  They  shall  in  all  cases,  except  treason, 
felony,  and  breach  of  the  peace,  be  privileged  from 
arrest  during  their  attendance  at  the  session  of 
their  respective  houses,  and  in  going  to  and  return- 
ing from  the  same  ;  and  for  any  speech  or  debate 
in  either  house,  they  shall  not  be  questioned  in  any 
other  place. 

2.  No  senator  or  representative  shall,  during  the 
time  for  which  he  was  elected,  be  appointed  to  any 
civil  office  under  the  authority  of  the  United  States, 
which  shall  have  been  created,  or  the  emoluments 
whereof  shall  have  been  increased,  during  such 
time  ;  and  no  person  holding  any  office  under  the 
United  States,  shall  be  a  member  of  either  house 
during  his  continuance  in  office. 

Sectio7i  VII.     Mode  of  Passing  Laws. 

1.  All  bills  for  raising  revenue  shall  originate  in 
the  House  of  Representatives  ;  but  the  Senate  may 
propose  or  concur  with  amendments,  as  on  other 
bills. 

2.  Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House 
of  Representatives  and  the  Senate  shall,  before  it 
become  a  law,  be  presented  to  the  President  of 
the  United  States.  If  he  approve,  he  shall  sign  it ; 
but  if  not,  he  shall  return  it,  with  his  objections,  to 
that  house  in  which  it  shall  have  originated,  who 
shall  enter  the  objections  at  large  on  their  journal, 
and  proceed  to  reconsider  it^ If,  after  such  recon» 


The  Constitution.  3^5 

sideration  two-thirds  of  that  house  shall  agree  to 
pass  the  bill,  it  shall  be  sent,  together  with  the 
objections,  to  the  other  house,  by  which  it  shall 
likewise  be  reconsidered,  and  if  approved  by  two- 
thirds  of  that  house,  it  shall  become  a  law.  But  in 
all  such  cases  the  votes  of  both  houses  shall  be 
determined  by  yeas  and  nays,  and  the  names  of  the 
persons  voting  for  and  against  the  bill  shall  be 
entered  on  the  journal  of  each  house  respectively. 
If  any  bill  shall  not  be  returned  by  the  President 
within  ten  days  (Sundays  excepted)  after  it  shall 
have  been  presented  to  him,  the  same  shall  be  a 
law  in  like  manner  as  if  he  had  signed  it,  unless  the 
Congress  by  their  adjournment  prevent  its  return, 
in  which  case  it  shall  not  be  a  law. 

3.  Every  order,  resolution,  or  vote  to  which  the 
concurrence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives may  be  necessary  (except  on  a  question 
of  adjournment)  shall  be  presented  to  the  President 
of  the  United  States  ;  and  before  the  same  shall 
take  effect,  shall  be  approved  by  him,  or  being 
disapproved  by  him,  shall  be  repassed  by  two-thirds 
of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives, 
according  to  the  rules  and  limitations  prescribed  in 
the  case  of  a  bill. 

Section  VIII.     Powers  granted  to  Congress.^ 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  : 

I.  To  lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties,  imposts,  and 
excises  to  pay  the  debts  and  provide  for  the  com- 

I  Compare  §§  VIII  and  IX  with  Confed.  Art.  IX  ;  clause  i  of  §  VIII  with 
Confed.  Art.  VIII  ;  and  clause  12  of  §  VIII  with  Confed.  Art,  VII, 


326  Appendix  B. 

mon  defence  and  general  welfare  of  the  United 
States  ;  but  all  duties,  imposts,  and  excises  shall 
be  uniform  throughout  the  United  States  ; 

2.  To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  United 
States  ; 

3.  To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations, 
and  among  the  several  States,  and  with  the  Indian 
tribes  ; 

4.  To  establish  a  uniform  rule  of  naturalization, 
and  uniform  laws  on  the  subject  of  bankruptcies, 
throughout  the  United  States  ; 

5.  To  coin  money,  regulate  the  value  thereof, 
and  of  foreign  coin,  and  fix  the  standard  of  weights 
and  measures  ; 

6.  To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  counterfeit- 
ing the  securities  and  current  coin  of  the  United 
States  ; 

7.  To  establish  post  offices  and  post  roads  ; 

8.  To  promote  the  progress  of  science  and  useful 
arts,  by  securing  for  limited  times  to  authors  and 
inventors  the  exclusive  right  to  their  respective 
writings  and  discoveries. 

9.  To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  Supreme 
Court  ; 

10.  To  define  and  punish  piracies  and  felonies 
committed  on  the  high  seas,  and  offences  against 
the  law  of  nations  ; 

11.  To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque  and 
reprisal,  and  make  rules  concerning  captures  on 
land  and  water ; 

12.  To  raise  and  support  armies  ;  but  no  appro- 


The  Constitution.  3^7 

priation  of  money  to  that  use  shall  be  for  a  longer 
term  than  two  years  ; 

13.  To  provide  and  maintain  a  navy  ; 

14.  To  make  rules  for  the  government  and  regu- 
lation of  the  land  and  naval  forces  ; 

15.  To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  to 
execute  the  laws  of  the  Union,  suppress  insurrec- 
tions, and  repel  invasions ; 

16.  To  provide  for  organizing,  arming,  and  disci- 
plining the  militia,  and  for  governing  such  part  of 
them  as  may  be  employed  in  the  service  of  the 
United  States,  reserving  to  the  States  respectively 
the  appointment  of  the  officers,  and  the  authority 
of  training  the  militia  according  to  the  discipline 
prescribed  by  Congress  ; 

17.  To  exercise  exclusive  legislation,  in  all  cases 
whatsoever,  over  such  district  (not  exceeding  ten 
miles  square)  as  may,  by  cession  of  particular 
States  and  the  acceptance  of  Congress,  become  the 
seat  of  government  of  the  United  States,  and  to 
exercise  like  authority  over  all  places  purchased, 
by  the  consent  of  the  Legislature  of  the  State  in 
which  the  same  shall  be,  for  the  erection  of  forts, 
magazines,  arsenals,  dock-yards,  and  other  needful 
buildings  ;  and 

18.  To  make  all  laws  which  shall  be  necessary 
and  proper  for  carrying  into  execution  the  fore- 
going powers,  and  all  other  powers  vested  by  this 
Constitution  in  the  government  of  the  United 
States,  or  in  any  department  or  officer  thereof. 


328  Appendix  B. 


Section  IX,     Powers  denied  to  the  United  States. 

1.  The  migration  or  importation  of  such  persons 
as  any  of  the  States  now  existing  shall  think  proper 
to  admit,  shall  not  be  prohibited  by  the  Congress 

'  nor  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and 
-;ht ;  but  a  tax  or  duty  may  be  imposed  on  such 
iportation,   not   exceeding   ten   dollars  for  each 
person. 

2.  The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall 
lot  be  suspended,  unless  when  in  cases  of  rebellion 

or  invasion  the  public  safety  may  require  it. 

3.  No  bill  of  attainder,  or  ex  post  facto  law  shall 
be  passed. 

4.  No  capitation  or  other  direct  tax  shall  be  laid, 
unless  in  proportion  to  the  census  or  enumeration 
herein  before  directed  to  be  taken. 

5.  No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles  ex- 
ported from  any  State. 

6.  No  preference  shall  be  given  by  any  regula- 
tion of  commerce  or  revenue  to  the  ports  of  one 
State  over  those  of  another  ;  nor  shall  vessels 
bound  to  or  from  one  State,  be  obliged  to  enter, 
clear,  or  pay  duties  in  another. 

7.  No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  treasury 
but  in  consequence  of  appropriations  made  by  law  ; 
and  a  regular  statement  and  account  of  the  receipts 
and  expenditures  of  all  public  money  shall  be  pub- 
lished from  time  to  time. 

8.  No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the 


The  Constittitioti.  3-9 

United  States  ;  and  no  person  holding  any  office 
of  profit  or  trust  under  them,  shall,  without  the 
consent  of  the  Congress,  accept  of  any  present, 
emolument,  office,  or  title,  of  any  kind  whatever, 
from  any  king,  prince,  or  foreign  state. 

Section  X.     Powers  denied  to  the  States} 

1.  No  State  shall  enter  into  any  treaty,  alliance, 
or  confederation  ;  grant  letters  of  marque  and 
reprisal  ;  coin  money  ;  emit  bills  of  credit  ;  make 
any  thing  but  gold  and  silver  coin  a  tender  in  pay- 
ment of  debts  ;  pass  any  bill  of  attainder,  ex-posi- 
facto  law,  or  law  impairing  the  obligation  of  con- 
tracts ;  or  grant  any  title  of  nobility. 

2.  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Con- 
gress, lay  any  imposts  or  duties  on  imports  or  ex- 
ports, except  what  may  be  absolutely  necessary  for 
executing  its  inspection  laws  ;  and  the  net  produce 
of  all  duties  and  imposts  laid  by  any  State  on 
imports  or  exports  shall  be  for  the  use  of  the 
treasury  of  the  United  States,  and  all  such  law^s 
shall  be  subject  to  the  revision  and  control  of  the 
Congress. 

3.  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  Con- 
gress, lay  any  duty  of  tonnage,  keep  troops  or  ships 
of  war  in  time  of  peace,  enter  into  any  agreement 
or  compact  with  another  State  or  with  a  foreign 
power,  or  engage  in  war  unless  actually  invaded, 

1  Compare  Article  I,  §  X,  with  Confed.  Art.  VI. 
20 


330  Appendix  B. 

or  in  such  imminent  danger  as  will  not  admit  of 
delay. 

Article  II.     Executive  Department.' 
Section  I.     President  and  Vice-President. 

1.  The  executive  power  shall  be  vested  in  a 
President  of  the  United  States  of  America. 

He  shall  hold  his  office  during  the  term  of  four 
years,  and,  together  with  the  Vice-President,  chosen 
for  the  same  term,  be  elected,  as  follows  : 

2.  Each  State  shall  appoint,  in  such  manner  as 
the  Legislature  thereof  may  direct,  a  number  of 
electors,  equal  to  the  whole  number  of  senators  and 
representatives  to  which  the  State  may  be  entitled 
in  the  Congress  :  but  no  senator  or  representative, 
or  person  holding  an  office  of  trust  or  profit  under 
the  United  States,  shall  be  appointed  an  elector. 

3.  [The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective 
States  and  vote  by  ballot  for  two  persons,  of  whom 
one  at  least  shall  not  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  same 
State  with  themselves.  And  they  shall  make  a  list 
of  all  the  persons  voted  for,  and  of  the  number  of 
votes  for  each  ;  which  list  they  shall  sign  and  certify, 
and  transmit,  sealed,  to  the  seat  of  the  government 
of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the  President  of 
the  Senate.  The  President  of  the  Senate  shall,  in 
the  presence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Represen- 
tatives, open  all  the  certificates,  and  the  votes  shall 


I  Compare  Article  II  with  Confed.  Art.  X. 


TJie  Constitution.  ZZ^ 

then  be  counted.  The  person  having  the  greatest 
number  of  votes  shall  be  the  President,  if  such 
number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of  elec- 
tors appointed  ;  and  it  there  be  more  than  one  who 
have  such  majority,  and  have  an  equal  number  of 
votes,  then  the  House  of  Representatives  shall 
immediately  choose  by  ballot  one  of  them  for 
President  ;  and  if  no  person  have  a  majority,  then, 
from  the  five  highest  on  the  list,  the  said  House 
shall  in  like  manner  choose  the  President.  But  in 
choosing  the  President,  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by 
States,  the  representation  from  each  State  having 
one  vote  ;  a  quorum  for  this  purpose  shall  consist 
of  a  member  or  members  from  two-thirds  of  the 
States,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be 
necessary  to  a  choice.  In  every  case,  after  the 
choice  of  the  President,  the  person  having  the 
greatest  number  of  votes  of  the  electors  shall  be 
the  Vice-President.  But  if  there  should  remain 
two  or  more  who  have  equal  votes,  the  Senate  shall 
choose  from  them  by  ballot  the  Vice-President.]* 

4.  The  Congress  may  determine  the  time  of 
choosing  the  electors,  and  the  day  on  which  they 
shall  give  their  votes,  which  day  shall  be  the  same 
throughout  the  United  States. 

5.  No  person  except  a  natural-born  citizen,  or  a 
citizen  of  the  United  States  at  the  time  of  the 
adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall  be  eligible  to 
the  office  of  President  ;  neither  shall  any  person  be 

J  Altered  by  the  Xllth  Amendment. 


332  Appendix  B. 

eligible  to  that  office  who  shall  not  have  attained  to 
the  age  of  thirty-five  years,  and  been  fourteen 
years  a  resident  within  the  United  States. 

6.  In  case  of  the  removal  of  the  President  from 
office,  or  of  his  death,  resignation,  or  inability  to 
discharge  the  powers  and  duties  of  the  said  office, 
the  same  shall  devolve  on  the  Vice-President ;  and 
the  Congress  may  by  law  provide  for  the  case  of 
removal,  death,  resignation,  or  inability,  both  of  the 
President  and  Vice-President,  declaring  what  officer 
shall  then  act  as  President,  and  such  officer  shall 
act  accordingly  until  the  disiibility  be  removed,  or 
a  President  shall  be  elected. 

7.  The  President  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive 
for  his  services  a  compensation,  which  shall  neither 
be  increased  nor  diminished  during  the  period  for 
which  he  shall  have  been  elected,  and  he  shall  not 
receive  within  that  period  any  other  emolument 
from  the  United  States,  or  any  of  them. 

8.  Before  he  enter  on  the  execution  of  his  office, 
he  shall  take  the  following  oath  or  affirmation  : 

"  I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I  will  faith- 
fully execute  the  office  of  President  of  the  United 
States,  and  will  to  the  best  of  my  ability,  preserve, 
protect,  and  defend  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States.'* 

Section  II.     Powers  of  the  President. 

I.  The  President  shall  be  commander-in-chief  of 
the  army  and  navy  of  the  United  States,  and  of  the 
militia  of  the  several  States  when  called  into  the 


The  Constitution.  333 

actual  service  of  the  United  States  ;  he  may  require 
the  opinion  in  writing  of  the  principal  officer  in 
each  of  the  executive  departments  upon  any  sub- 
ject relating  to  the  duties  of  their  respective  offices  ; 
and  he  shall  have  power  to  grant  reprieves  and 
pardons  for  offenses  against  the  United  States,  ex- 
cept in  cases  of  impeachment. 

2.  He  shall  have  power,  by  and  with  the  advice 
and  consent  of  the  Senate,  to  make  treaties,  pro- 
vided two-thirds  of  the  senators  present  concur ; 
and  he  shall  nominate,  and  by  and  with  the  advice 
and  consent  of  the  Senate,  shall  appoint  ambas- 
sadors, other  public  ministers  and  consuls,  judges 
of  the  supreme  Court,  and  all  other  officers  of  the 
United  States,  whose  appointments  are  not  herein 
otherwise  provided  for  and  which  shall  be  estab- 
lished by  law  ;  but  the  Congress  may  by  law  vest 
the  appointment  of  such  inferior  officers  as  they 
think  proper  in  the  President  alone,  in  the  courts 
of  law,  or  in  the  heads  of  departments. 

3.  The  President  shall  have  power  to  fill  up  all 
vacancies  that  may  happen  during  the  recess  of  the 
Senate,  by  granting  commissions,  which  shall  ex- 
pire at  the  end  of  their  next  session. 

Section  III.     Duties  of  the  Preside?if. 

He  shall,  from  time  to  time,  give  to  the  Congress 
information  of  the  state  of  the  Union,  and  recom- 
mend to  their  consideration  such  measures  as  he 
shall  judge  necessary  and  expedient;  he  may,  on 


334  Appendix  B. 

extraordinary  occasions,  convene  both  houses,  or 
either  of  them ;  and  in  case  of  disagreement  be- 
tween them,  with  respect  to  the  time  of  adjourn- 
ment, he  may  adjourn  them  to  such  time  as  he  shall 
think  proper ;  he  shall  receive  ambassadors  and 
other  public  ministers ;  he  shall  take  care  that  the 
laws  be  faithfully  executed,  and  shall  commission 
all  the  officers  of  the  United  States. 

Section  IV.     Impeachment  of  the  Preside7it. 

The  President,  Vice-President,  and  all  civil 
officers  of  the  United  States  shall  be  removed 
from  office  on  impeachment  for  and  conviction  of 
treason,  bribery,  or  other  high  crimes  and  mis- 
demeanors. 

Article  III.     Judicial  Department.* 
Section  I.      United  States  Courts. 

The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  be 
vested  in  one  supreme  Court,  and  in  such  inferior 
courts  as  the  Congress  may  from  time  to  time  ordain 
and  establish.  The  judges,  both  of  the  supreme 
and  inferior  courts,  shall  hold  their  offices  during 
good  behavior  ;  and  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive 
for  their  services,  a  compensation,  which  shall 
not  be  diminished  during  their  continuance  in 
office. 

I  The  Confederacy  had  no  such  provision  as  Article  III  of  the  Constitu- 
tion, except  the  attempt  to  make  a  Congressional  Court  in  Confed.  Art.  IX. 


The  Constitution.  335 


Section  II.    Jurisdiction  of  the  United  States  Courts. 

1.  The  judicial  power  shall  extend  to  all  cases 
in  law  and  equity  arising  under  this  Constitution, 
the  laws  of  the  United  States,  and  treaties  made 
or  which  shall  be  made,  under  their  authority ;  to 
all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  minis- 
ters, and  consuls  ;  to  all  cases  of  admiralty  and 
maritime  jurisdiction  ;  to  controversies  to  which 
the  United  States  shall  be  a  party ;  to  contro- 
versies between  two  or  more  States ;  between  a 
State  and  citizens  of  another  State  ;  between  citi- 
zens of  different  States ;  between  citizens  of  the 
same  State  claiming  lands  under  grants  of  different 
States,  and  between  a  State,  or  the  citizens  thereof, 
and  foreign  States,  citizens,  or  subjects.^ 

2.  In  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public 
ministers  and  consuls,  and  those  in  which  a  State 
shall  be  a  party,  the  supreme  Court  shall  have 
original  jurisdiction.  In  all  the  other  cases  before 
mentioned,  the  supreme  Court  shall  have  appellate 
jurisdiction,  both  as  to  law  and  fact,  with  such  ex- 
ceptions and  under  such  regulations  as  the  Con- 
gress shall  make. 

3.  The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases  of  \nu 
peachment,  shall  be  by  jury ;  and  such  trial  shall 
be  held  in  the  State  where  the  said  crimes  shall 
have  been  committed  ;  but  when   not  committed 

I  Altered  by  Xlth  Amendment. 


33^  Appendix  B. 

within  any  State,  the  trial  shall  be  at  such  place  or 
places  as  the  Congress  may  by  law  have  directed. 

Section  III.      Treason. 

1.  Treason  against  the  United  States  shall  con- 
sist only  in  levying  war  against  them,  or  in  adher- 
ing to  their  enemies,  giving  them  aid  and  comfort. 
No  person  shall  be  convicted  of  treason  unless  on 
the  testimony  of  two  witnesses  to  the  same  overt 
act,  or  on  confession  in  open  court. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  declare  the 
punishment  of  treason,  but  no  attainder  of  treason 
shall  work  corruption  of  blood,  or  forfeiture,  ex- 
cept during  the  life  of  the  person  attainted. 

Article  IV.     The    States   and   the   Federal 
Government.* 

Section  I.     State  Records. 

Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given  in  each  State 
to  the  public  acts,  records,  and  judicial  proceedings 
of  every  other  State.  And  the  Congress  may,  by 
general  laws,  prescribe  the  manner  in  which  such 
acts,  records,  and  proceedings  shall  be  proved,  and 
the  effect  thereof. 

Section  If.     Privileges  of  Citizens^  etc. 

I.  The  citizens  of  each  State  shall  be  entitled  to 
all  privileges  and  immunities  of  citizens  in  the 
several  States. 

X  Compare  Article  IV  with  Confed,  Art.  IV. 


The  Constitution.  337 

2.  A  person  charged  in  any  State  with  treason, 
felony,  or  other  crime,  who  shall  flee  from  justice 
and  be  found  in  another  State,  shall,  on  demand  of 
the  executive  authority  of  the  State  from  which  he 
fled,  be  delivered  up,  to  be  removed  to  the  State 
having  jurisdiction  of  the  crime. 

No  person  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one  State, 
under  the  laws  thereof,  escaping  into  another, 
shall,  in  consequence  of  any  law  or  regulation 
therein,  be  discharged  from  such  service  or  labor, 
but  shall  be  delivered  up  on  claim  of  the  party  to 
whom  such  service  or  labor  may  be  due. 

Section  III.     New  States  and  Territories.'^ 

1.  New  States  may  be  admitted  by  the  Congress 
into  this  Union  ;  but  no  new  State  shall  be  formed 
or  erected  within  the  jurisdiction  of  any  other 
State  ;  nor  any  State  be  formed  by  the  junction  of 
two  or  more  States,  or  parts  of  States,  without  the 
consent  of  the  Legislatures  of  the  States  concerned, 
as  well  as  of  the  Congress. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  dispose  of, 
and  make  all  needful  rules  and  regulations  respect- 
ing the  territory  or  other  property  belonging  to 
the  United  States  ;  and  nothing  in  this  Constitu- 
tion shall  be  so  construed  as  to  prejudice  any 
claims  of  the  United  States  or  of  any  particular 
State. 

I  Compare  Article  IV,  §  III,  with  Confed.  Art.  XI. 


338  Appendix  B. 


Section  IV,     Guarantee  to  the  States, 

The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to  every 
State  in  this  Union  a  republican  form  of  govern- 
ment, and  shall  protect  each  of  them  against  inva- 
sion ;  and,  on  application  of  the  Legislature,  or  of 
the  executive  (when  the  Legislature  cannot  be 
convened),  against  domestic  violence. 

Article  V.     Power  of  Amendment.' 

The  Congress,  whenever  two-thirds  of  both 
Houses  shall  deem  it  necessary,  shall  propose 
amendments  to  this  Constitution,  or,  on  the  appli- 
cation of  the  Legislatures  of  two-thirds  of  the  sev- 
eral States,  shall  call  a  convention  for  proposing 
amendments,  which,  in  either  case,  shall  be  valid 
to  all  intents  and  purposes  as  part  of  this  Constitu- 
tion, when  ratified  by  the  Legislatures  of  three- 
fourths  of  the  several  States,  or  by  conventions  in 
three-fourths  thereof,  as  the  one  or  the  other  mode 
of  ratification  may  be  proposed  by  the  Congress  ; 
provided  that  no  amendment  which  may  be  made 
prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and 
eight  shall  in  any  manner  affect  the  first  and  fourth 
clauses  in  the  ninth  section  of  the  first  Article  ;  and 
that  no  State,  without  its  consent,  shall  be  deprived 
<of  its  equal  suffrage  in  the  Senate. 

I  Compare  Article  V  with  Confed.  Art.  XIII  (last  sentence) 


The  Constitution,  339 


Article  VI.  Public  Debt,  Supremacy  of  the 
Constitution,  Oath  of  Office,  Religious 
Test.* 

1.  All  debts  contracted  and  engagements  entered 
into  before  the  adoption  of  this  Constitution  shall 
be  as  valid  against  the  United  States  under  this 
Constitution, as  under  the  Confederation. 

2.  This  Constitution,  and  the  laws  of  the  United 
States  which  shall  be  made  in  pursuance  thereof;  and 
all  treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made,  under  the 
authority  of  the  United  States,  shall  be  the  supreme 
law  of  the  land  ;  and  the  judges  in  every  State 
shall  be  bound  thereby,  any  thing  m  the  Constitu- 
tion or  laws  of  any  State  to  the  contrary  notwith- 
standing. 

3.  The  senators  and  representatives  before-men- 
tioned, and  the  members  of  the  several  State  Leg- 
islatures, and  all  executive  and  judicial  officers, 
both  of  the  United  States  and  of  the  several  States, 
shall  be  bound  by  oath  or  affirmation, to  support 
this  Constitution  ;  but  no  religious  test  shall  ever 
be  required  as  a  qualification  to  any  office  or  public 
trust  under  the  United  States. 

Article   VII.     Ratification   of   the    Consti- 
tution. 
The   ratification  of   the   Conventions   of    nine 

I  Compare  Article  VI,  clause  i,  with  Confed.  Art.  XII  ;  and  clauses  2 
and  3  with  Confed.  Art.  XIII  and  addendum,  "  And  whereas,"  etc 


340  Appendix  3, 

States,  shall  be  sufficient  for  the  establishment  of 
this  Constitution  between  the  States  so  ratifying 
the  same. 

Done  in  Convention  by  the  unanimous  consent 
of  the  States  present  the  seventeenth  day  of  Sep- 
tember in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  seven 
hundred  and  eighty-seven  and  of  the  Independence 
of  the  United  States  of  America  the  twelfth. 


AMENDMENTS  TO  THE  CONSTITUTION. 
Article  I. 
Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  estab- 
lishment of  religion,  or  prohibiting  the  free  exer- 
cise thereof  ;  or  abridging  the  freedom  of  speech, 
or  of  the  press,  or  the  right  of  the  people  peaceably 
to  assemble,  and  to  petition  the  government  for  a 
redress  of  grievances. 

Article  II. 
A  well  regulated  militia  being  necessary  to  the 
security  of  a  free  state,  the  right  of  the  people  to 
keep  and  bear  arms  shall  not  be  infringed. 

Article  III. 
No  soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace,  be  quartered 
in  any  house,  without  the  consent  of  the  owner,  nor 
in  time  of  war,  but  in  a  manner  to  be  prescribed 
by  law. 


The  Constitution.  34 1 


Article  IV. 
The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their  per- 
sons, houses,  papers,  and  effects,  against  unreason- 
ble  searches  and  seizures  shall  not  be  violated,  and 
no  warrants  shall  issue  but  upon  probable  cause, 
supported  by  oath  or  affirmation,  and  particularly 
describing  the  place  to  be  searched,  and  the  per- 
sons or  things  to  be  seized. 

Article  V. 
No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a  capital, 
or  otherwise  infamous  crime,  unless  on  a  present- 
ment or  indictment  of  a  grand  jury,  except  in  cases 
arising  in  the  land  or  naval  forces,  or  in  the  militia 
when  in  actual  service  in  time  of  war  or  public 
danger  ;  nor  shall  any  person  be  subject  for  the 
same  offense  to  be  twice  put  in  jeopardy  of  life  or 
limb  ;  nor  shall  be  compelled,  in  any  criminal  case, 
to  be  a  witness  against  himself,  nor  be  deprived 
of  life,  liberty,  or  property,  without  due  process  of 
law  ;  nor  shall  private  property  be  taken  for  public 
use  without  just  compensation. 

Article  VI. 
In  all  criminal  prosecutions,  the  accused  shall 
enjoy  the  right  to  a  speedy  and  public  trial,  by  an 
impartial  jury  of  the  State  and  district  wherein  the 
crime  shall  have  been  committed,  which  district 
shall  have  been  previously  ascertained  by  law,  and 


342  Appendix  B. 

to  be  informed  of  the  nature  and  cause  of  the  accu- 
sation ;  to  be  confronted  with  the  witnesses  against 
him  ;  to  have  compulsory  process  for  obtaining 
witnesses  in  his  favor  ;  and  to  have  the  assistance 
of  counsel  for  his  defense. 

Article  VII. 
In  suits  at  common  law,  where  the  value  in  con- 
troversy shall  exceed  twenty  dollars,  the  right  of 
trial  by  jury  shall  be  preserved  ;  and  no  fact  tried 
by  a  jury  shall  be  otherwise  re-examined  in  any 
court  of  the  United  States  than  according  to  the 
rules  of  the  common  law. 

Article  VIII. 
Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,  nor  exces- 
sive fines  imposed,  nor  cruel  and  unusual  punish- 
ments inflicted. 

Article  IX. 
The  enumeration  in  the  Constitution  of  certain 
rights  shall  not  be  construed  to  deny  or  disparage 
others  retained  by  the  people. 

Article  X.* 

The  powers  notdelegated  to  the  United  States  by 
the  Constitution,  nor  prohibited  by  it  to  the  States, 
are  reserved  to  the  States  respectively  or  to  the 
people. 

I  Compare  the  Xth  Amendment  with  Confcd.  Art.  II.  The  first  ten 
Amendments  were  proposed  by  Congress,  September  25th,  1789,  and 
declared  in  force,  December  15th,  1791. 


The  Cotistitution,  343 


Article  XI.* 

The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall 
not  be  construed  to  extend  to  any  suit  in  law  or 
equity,  commenced  or  prosecuted  against  one  of 
the  United  States  by  citizens  of  another  State,  or 
by  citizens  or  subjects  of  any  foreign  State. 


Article  XII.^ 


^ 


I.  The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective 
States,  and  vote  by  ballot  for  President  and  Vice- 
President,  one  of  whom,  at  least,  shall  not  be  an 
inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with  themselves  ;  they 
shall  name  in  their  ballots  the  person  voted  for  as 
President,  and  in  distinct  ballots  the  person  voted 
for  as  Vice-President,  and  they  shall  make  distinct 
lists  of  all  persons  voted  for  as  President,  and  of 
all  persons  voted  for  as  Vice-President,  and  of  the 
number  of  votes  for  each,  which  lists  they  shall 
sign  and  certify,  and  transmit  sealed  to  the  seat  of 
government  of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the 
President  of  the  Senate  ; — the  President  of  the 
Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  Senate  and 
House  of  Representatives,  open  all  the  certificates, 
and  the  votes  shall  then  be  counted  ; — the  person 
having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  for  President, 

1  Proposed  by  Congress  March  5th,  1794,  and  declared  in  force  January 
8th,  1798. 

2  Proposed  by  Congress  December  12th,  1803,  ^"^  declared  in  force  Sep. 
tember  25th,  1804. 


344  Appendix  B, 

shall  be  the  President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority 
of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed  ;  and  if 
no  person  have  such  majority,  then  from  the  per- 
sons having  the  highest  numbers,  not  exceeding 
three,  on  the  list  of  those  voted  for  as  President, 
the  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  imme- 
diately by  ballot  the  President.  But  in  choosing 
the  President,  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  states, 
the  representation  from  each  state  having  one 
vote  ;  a  quorum  for  this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a 
member  or  members  from  two-thirds  of  the  States, 
and  a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary 
to  a  choice.  And  if  the  House  of  Representatives 
shall  not  choose  a  President,  whenever  the  right  of 
choice  shall  devolve  upon  them,  before  the  fourth 
day  of  March  next  following,  then  the  Vice-Presi- 
dent shall  act  as  President,  as  in  the  case  of 
death  or  other  constitutional  disability  of  the 
President. 

2.  The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of 
votes  as  Vice-President  shall  be  the  Vice-President^ 
if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number 
of  electors  appointed,  and  if  no  person  have  a 
majority,  then  from  the  two  highest  numbers  on 
the  list,  the  Senate  shall  choose  the  Vice-President ; 
a  quorum  for  the  purpose  shall  consist  of  two- 
thirds  of  the  whole  number  of  Senators,  and  a 
majority  of  the  whole  number  shall  be  necessary  to 
a  choice. 

3.  But  no  person  constitutionally  ineligible  to  the 


The  Constitution,  345 

office  of  President  shall  be  eligible  to  that  of  Vice- 
President  of  the  United  States. 

Article  XIII.' 

1.  Neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude, 
except  as  a  punishment  for  crime  whereof  the 
party  shall  have  been  duly  convicted,  shall  exist 
within  the  United  States,  or  any  place  subject  to 
their  jurisdiction. 

2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this 
article  by  appropriate  legislation. 

Article  XIV.^ 

1.  All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United 
States,  and  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are 
citizens  of  the  United  States  and  of  the  State 
wherein  they  reside.  No  State  shall  make  or 
enforce  any  law  which  shall  abridge  the  privileges 
or  immunities  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  ;  nor 
shall  any  State  deprive  any  person  of  life,  liberty, 
or  property,  without  due  process  of  law;  nor  deny 
to  any  person  within  its  jurisdiction  the  equal  pro- 
tection of  the  laws. 

2.  Representatives  shall  be  apportioned  among 
the  several  States  according  to  their  respective 
numbers,  counting  the  whole  number  of  persons  in 
each  State,  excluding  Indians  not  taxed.     But  when 

1  Proposed  by  Congress  February   ist,  1865,  and  declared  in  force  De- 
cember i8th,  1865. 

2  Proposed  by  Congress  June  i6th,  1866,  and  declared  in  force  July  28th, 
1868. 

2\ 


34^  Appendix  B. 

the  right  to  vote  at  any  election  for  the  choice  of 
electors  for  President  and  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States,  representatives  in  Congress,  the 
executive  and  judicial  officers  of  a  State,  or  the 
members  of  the  Legislature  thereof,  is  denied  to 
any  of  the  male  inhabitants  of  such  State,  being 
twenty-one  years  of  age,  and  citizens  of  the  United 
States,  or  in  any  way  abridged,  except  for  partici- 
pation in  rebellion  or  other  crime,  the  basis  of  rep- 
resentation therein  shall  be  reduced  in  the  propor- 
tion which  the  number  of  such  male  citizens  shall 
bear  to  the  whole  number  of  male  citizens  twenty- 
one  years  of  age  in  such  State. 

3.  No  person  shall  be  a  senator  or  representative 
in  Congress,  or  elector  of  President  or  Vice-Presi- 
dent, or  hold  any  office,  civil  or  military,  under 
the  United  States,  or  under  any  State,  who,  having 
previously  taken  an  oath,  as  a  member  of  Congress, 
or  as  an  officer  of  the  United  States,  or  as  a  mem- 
ber of  any  State  Legislature,  or  as  an  executive 
or  judicial  officer  of  any  State,  to  support  the  Con- 
stitution of  the  United  States,  shall  have  engaged 
in  insurrection  or  rebellion  against  the  same,  or 
given  aid  and  comfort  to  the  enemies  thereof.  But 
Congress  may,  by  a  vote  of  two-thirds  of  each 
House,  remove  such  disability. 

4.  The  validity  of  the  public  debt  of  the  United 
States,  authorized  by  law,  including  debts  incurred 
for  payment  of  pensions  and  bounties  for  services 
in  suppressing  insurrection  or  rebellion,  shall  not 


The  Constitution.  347 

be  questioned.  But  neither  the  United  States  nor 
any  State  shall  assume  or  pay  any  debt  or  obhga- 
tion  incurred  in  aid  of  insurrection  or  rebellion 
against  the  United  States,  or  any  claim  for  the  loss 
or  emancipation  of  any  slave ;  but  all  such  debts, 
obligations,  and  claims  shall  be  held  illegal  and 
void. 

5.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  by 
appropriate  legislation, the  provisions  of  this  article. 

Article  XV.^ 

1.  The  right  of  the  citizens  of  the  United  States 
to  vote  shall  not  be  denied  or  abridged  by  the 
United  States  or  any  State  on  account  of  race, 
color,  or  previous  condition  of  servitude. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce 
this  article  by  appropriate  legislation. 

I  Proposed  by  Congress  February  26th,  1869,  and  declared  in  force  March 
30th,  1870. 


)48 


Appendix  C. 


APPENDIX  C. 
Admission  or  the  States.' 


9- 

lo. 
II. 

12. 

14. 

15. 
16. 

17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 


Delaware,'  Dec.  7,  1787. 
Pennsylvania,'  Dec.  12, 

1787. 
New  Jersey,'  Dec.  18, 

1787. 
Georgia,'  Jan.  2,  1788. 
Connecticut,' Jan.g,  1788. 
Massachusetts,'    Feb.    7, 

1788. 
Maryland, 'April  28, 1788. 
South  Carolina,'  May  23, 

1788. 
New    Hampshire,'  June 

21,  1788. 
Virginia,'  June  26,  1788. 
New  York,'  July  26, 1788. 
North  Carolina,''  Nov.  21, 

1789. 
Rhode  Island,'  May  29, 

1790. 
Vermont,  March  4,  1791. 
Kentucky,  June  i,  1792. 
Tennessee,  June  i,  1796. 
Ohio,  Nov.  29,  1802. 
Louisiana,  April  30, 1812. 
Indiana,  Dec.  11,  1816. 
Mississippi,    Dec.    lo, 

1817. 


21.  Illinois,  Dec.  3,  1818. 

22.  Alabama,  Dec.  14,  1819. 

23.  Maine,    March   15,  1820. 

24.  Missouri,  Aug.  10,  1821. 

25.  Arkansas,  June  15,  1836. 

26.  Michigan,  Jan.  26,  1837. 

27.  Florida,  March  3,  1845. 

28.  Texas,  Dec.  29,  1845. 

29.  Iowa,  Dec.  28,  1846. 

30.  Wisconsin,  May  29,  1848. 

31.  California,  Sept.  9,  1850. 

32.  Minnesota,  May  1 1,  1858"" 

33.  Oregon,  Feb.  14,  1859. 

34.  Kansas,  Jan.  29,  1861. 

35.  West  Virginia,  June  19, 

1863. 

36.  Nevada,  Oct.  31,  1864. 

37.  Nebraska,  March  i,  1867 

38.  Colorado,  Aug.  i,.i876. 

39.  North  Dakota,  Nov.  3, 

1889. 

40.  South  Dakota,  Nov.  3, 

1889. 

41.  Montana,  Nov.  8,  1889. 

42.  Washington,  Nov.  11, 

1889. 

43.  Idaho,  July  3,  1890. 

44.  Wyoming,  July   7,  1890. 


45.   Utah,  Jan.  4,  1896. 


1  The  dates  given,  after  the  first  thirteen  States,  are  those  upon  which 
the  admissions  took  effect. 

2  Ratified  the  Constitution  and  became  States. 


Votes  for  President,  1 789-1 888.         349 


•310_^  iraojoaia 

0  rf  C^O  vO-^CONNMMMrt 

4> 

> 

i 

•?^1e;s 

George  Washington, 
John  Adams, 
John  Jay, 
R.  H.  Harrison, 
John  Rutledge, 
John  Hancock, 
George  Clinton, 
Samuel  Huntington, 
John  Milton, 
Benjamin  Lincoln, 
Tames  Armstrong, 
Edward  Telfair, 
Vacancies, 

Party. 

to 

JO  aaqranii 

0 

M 

•J33A 

M 

•5^  = 

«    O    4, 


.=  o 
.2  ° 

On* 


350 


Appendix  D. 


•sjOAlBiojwia 

Ni>^OTtMto      MOO  OO  uiM  r^inerici  CI 
cot^in                     t^NO  »ncoM  M 

1 

1 

•saiBjg 

' 

i 

George  Washington, 
John  Adams, 
George  Clinton,    - 
Thomas  Jefferson, 
Aaron  Burr, 
Vacancies, 

John  Adams, 
Thomas  Jefferson, 
Thomas  Pinckney, 
Aaron  Burr, 
Samuel  Adams, 
Oliver  Ellsworth, 
George  Clinton, 
John  Jay, 
James  Iredell, 
George  Washington, 
John  Henry, 

Party. 

Federalist, 
Federalist, 
Republican, 

Federalist, 
Republican, 
Federalist, 
Republican, 

m                                CO 
CO                          tn 

M                                                        M 

JO  aaqmn^ 

•JB3A 

s             1 

VoUs  for  President,  1 789- 1888.        3  S  i 


I        1 


01:: 


1:  1: 


e4 


•IUI0J0313 

0  11        «        •^ 

'i 
i 

> 
(2 

George  Clinton, 
Rufus  King, 

George  Clinton, 
James  Madison, 
Rufus  King, 
John  Langdon, 
James  Monroe, 

•IBJojoaia 

y 

•SDJEjg 

m  M         a         ir> 

c 

Thomas  Jefferson. 
Chas.  C.  Pinckney, 

James  Madison, 
George  Clinton, 
Chas.  C.  Pinckney, 

Vacancy, 

1 

Republican, 
Federalist, 

Republican,       - 

Federalist, 

•330A -50313 

^         'g. 

•S3)B1S    JO  -0^ 

r>.           r^ 

1           •■reaA 

CO            00 

352 


Appendix  D. 


'IBJOjDaia 

C<)00          CO    C<                                 l-i                                       CO    t«^  N 

c 

I 

> 

1 

Eldridge  Gerry, 
Jared  Ingersoll, 

D.  D.  Tompkins, 
John  E.  Howard, 
James  Ross, 
John  Marshall, 
Robt.  G.  Harper, 

D.  D.  Tompkins, 
Rich.  Stockton, 
Daniel  Rodney, 
Robt.  G.  Harper, 
Richard  Rush, 

John  C.  Calhoun, 
Nathan  San  ford, 
Nathaniel  Macon, 

'lEJOpaia 

CO     OMH     CO   ■^ 

N  CO        CO  CO 

r}-  t-i  M                   CO  o  "*  '-' 

CO                                     O^CO    •'^ 

r3     . 

Is 

M    •-•    CI 

r^  N  CO 

CO   to  w 

•S3WS 

^  t^       O   CO 

■rt-                                  O  CO   CO 

N                                                    tH 

C 

•a 
1 

1 

'James  Madison, 
De  Witt  Clinton, 

Vacancy. 
James  Monroe, 
Rufus  King, 

Vacancies, 
James  Monroe, 
John  Q.  Adams.N 

Vacancies, 
-Andrew  Jackson, 
■-John  Q.  Adams, 
Wm.  H .  Crawford, 

1 

Republican, 
Federalist, 

Republican, 
Federalist, 

Republican, 
Republican, 

•S3JOA  -Paia 

CO                   w 

«             c^ 

in                             i-i 
CO                              O 

•S35B1S  JO  'ON 

00                  O 
M                      M 

^           ^ 

•resA 

N                 vO 

t-t                      IH 
OO                 OO 

M                      tH 

%          t 

OO                                    OO 
M                                        M 

Vofes  for  President,   1 789-1 888.         353 


cs   3   rt 


c  ^ 


rt    .r: 


(J  iii  c/5    J5  bjo£  <u  ;> 


U 


o  a>  r^  w 


O  t^  o 


^8^ 


1"^  O  en 

00     C<i   CO 


U 


lie 


^  ^  £  fa 
Si  ^  ^ 
-a  cS^ 
^  -r  >  o 

-v-^ — 


O)    O      -     ..     - 

»-    tn    1>    1-    C 


E  J3  g 


a. 


cj  ci. 


■-2  c 


<u    as    c 


^  S.-9 


CO 

Tl- 

-i- 

vO 

CO 

0 

0 

C4 

w 

N 

'i- 

1- 

vO 

»o 

w 

N 

w 

N 

354 


Appendix  D. 


O   u^ 

CO  r^ 

Tj-  e^ 

'^  rfoo 

O    N    N    O 

•IBJ01D3ia 

r-.  o 

M     M 

sO    M 

in  Tj- 

OO  r^  M  CO 

M 

1 

§1 

o    .  o 

1        -§l 

^     S     S     ^ 

8 

f^  TJ 

-HO^ 

^<i 

5^" 

^^^-H 

> 

8^. 

OH 

II  2" 

O   "^ 

c<-)  t^ 

Tf  CJ 

'I-  "^00 

O    N    N    O 

•lBao;D3ia 

r-O 

O    N 

in  Tj- 

r-  w 

C»    l^  t-i    CO 

h-l     tH 

M     M 

" 

coco   O 

M     -f    CO 

rfco    O 

On  •^  -^ 

N    CO  t^  M 

1-0  o 

O   -i-O 

r-^  r^  rf 

O   O    CO 

ino   inco 

-Isi 

c^   O   CO 

>-<    »r)  M 

'^l-  m  M 

M   C)   in 

CO  i^  11   in 

r~^  o  c^ 

O    O    w 

w  O  vO 

CO   w   -f 

vO   "->  U-)  O 

i> 

en  c>o 

vO  c«   o 

O  CO  in 

CO  -t  r^ 

O  1"  t-^oo 

CO  N 

CO  C)    M 

VO      CO    HH 

CO  coco 

oo  CO  CO  in 

in  M 

U-)  in 

1^  ■rj- 

O    HH      W 

r^  M  (N  CO 

•saiEjg 

M     l-l 

M     M 

C< 

t-H     >H 

M     hH 

C    G    J*' 

^'^ 

4     £ 

o       ri 

ill 

O  XI      - 

."2 

^  ^s 

^^K 

1'^ 

^^-H 

lias 

(1h 

^^Oo 

C  t3      . 

^ 

(U    1^     (U 

111 

lii^t 

:        rf 

5 

CJ 

o" 

O'c" 

1 

>. 

'*J 

1  i 

<U    lU    c 

rt  -X:  -13  P 

>-< 

aS  a  o 

(L)     <U    <U  U 

Q^J 

Q?JPh 

Qq^< 

q^QQT 

•S3JOA   -13313 

vn 

% 

? 

l^JOX 

p< 

w 

rj 

c» 

CO 

•S31BJS    JO  -ON 

^ 

o 

CO 

CO 

CO 

CO 
CO 

rf 

CO 

N 

o 

Q 

•XE3j^ 

■^ 

"i- 

in 

m 

vO 

oo 

CO 

oo 

CO 

CO 

►^ 

Votes  for  President,   1879- 1888.        355 


\r>  CO  ir>  t*^ 


c    . 


C/2  fe 


13  o 


o 


vO  CO 

I-"  o 

N  CO 


o  c^co  CO 
1^  r^  o  o 

r^  "1^  C?>  tn 

O^  CO  N 
inco 


O    «J 
G  « 

^  o  > 


n      O 


c3    O 


t/l 


^  o  > 


K  > 


c/::  'J  y  —  "u      "">  rt 
^  a>  O  M  E  ^  .AQ 

D  5:  u  H^H  «  u  Q 


i^  rt 


_o    OS 


as  :ti--   G 

U     1»    «    lU 

PiQGH 


CO  CO 


O  u- 
in  CO 
O^co 

en  CO 
O  N 


<u  G 


rl- 

r^ 

vO 

a> 

M 

0 

vO 

cn 

en 

en 

0 

1-^ 

r^ 

CO 

en 

en 

en 

en 

>  s 

"o  2 


5  >  5  «  o 
<  ^  <  o    . 

O     ci    o    «    u 


^^. 


°    V    « 


356 


Appendix  D^ 


II       -puopaia 

^\r%               ^M                cnoo 

M    lO                     M  oo                       V^sO 
MM                          MM                          MM 

i 

1 

1 

S.  F.  Gary, 
R.  T.  Stewart, 

Chester  A.  Arthur, 
Wm.  H.  English, 
B.  J,  Chambers, 

T.  A,  Hendricks, 
John  A.  Logan, 
Wm.  Daniel, 
A.  M.  West, 

Levi  P.  Morton, 
AllenG.Thurman, 

•lBJ0JD3[a 

►-   »r»                 M  CO                  c<^0 

MM                           MM                          MM 

It 

^  M      in  cno  r-     «coOn      mmOO 
r^in     oOoom     ocnooco      <y^\i~>  -rto 

^  CT,     M'M'o"ci     m'oo"  m"  tn     ^^^^i' ■^ 
so            'i--^OM      MTtmeO'^cnri-.rt 

•^  Tj-  CO               OOO    MM        ^  m  M    M 

Tf  rf               -^  Tt               xnvn 

•S3JE4S 

cy^  <yi             o  CO              o  CO 

i-i    i-i                    Mm                    mm 

C 

1 

Si 
1 

Peter  Cooper, 
Green  C.  Smith, 

James  A.  Garfield, 
W.  S.  Hancock, 
James  B.  Weaver, 
Scattering, 

Grover  Cleveland, 
Jas.  G.  Blaine, 
J.  P.  St.  John, 

B.  F.  Butler, 

Benj.  Harrison, 
Grover  Cleveland, 

C.  B.  Fisk, 
.A.  J.  Streeter, 

1 

"  Greenback," 
"  Prohibition," 

Republican, 
Democratic, 
"Greenback," 

Democratic, 
Republican, 
Prohibition, 
Labor, 

Republican, 
Democratic, 
Prohibition, 
Union  Labor, 

•S310A   -13313 

f       i        3 

•saiBig  JO  Oil                  «                  'i^                 <« 

•J«3A 

i88o 
1884 
1888 

Votes  for  President,  iSg2-i8()6.         357 


IBJOjoaia 

«  cn  CO 

N    p-i 

c 
w 

i 
> 

1 

A.  E.  Stevenson, 
Whitelaw  Reid, 
James  G.  Field, 
J.  B.   Cranfdl, 
C.  PL  Matchett, 

Garrett  A.  Hobart, 
Arthur  Sevvall, 
Thos.  E.  Watson, 
Hale  Johnson, 
J.  H.  Southgate, 
Matthew  Maguire, 
S.  B.  Buckner, 

•IBJOJ03I3 

vC   0   en  c>o 
M  M  in  a  w 

T^f  in  ci  cf  w 
in  i-«  -1-0  C4 
in  w_  0   N 
vn  m  i-i 

^^2      ^  ^§^ 

Tt  M            P;     in  in 

w  en          4:    0"  «n 
00           2:     ^  ^ 

M      in                   J                     HH 

r^o"      ^_, 

•S3JEJS 

CO  ino 

en  M 

C 

c2 

"Grover  Cleveland, 
Benj.  Harrison, 
James  B.  Weaver, 
John  Bidwell, 
Simon  Wing, 

William  McKinley, 
William  J.  Bryan, 
William  J.  Bryan, 
Joshua  Levering, 
Chas.  E.  Bentley, 
Chas.  B.  Matchett, 
John  M.  Palmer, 

(2 

Democratic, 

Republican, 

People's, 

Prohibition, 

Socialist-Labor, 

Republican, 

Democratic, 

People's, 

Prohibition, 

Nat.  Prohibition, 

Socialist-Labor, 

Nat.  Democratic, 

•S3?0A  -33313 
1^30x 

1    •* 
1    - 

•S3JBJS  JO  -OX 

1    5 

in 

'1- 

UB3A 

00 

358 


Appendix  D, 


•IBJOjoaia 

CM    «                                                             I 

> 
o 

Theodore  Roosevelt, 
Adlai  E.  Stevenson, 
Adlai  E.  Stevenson, 
Adlai  E.  Stevenson, 
Henry  B.  Metcalf, 
Valentine  Remmel, 
Job  Harriman, 
Ignatius  Donnelly, 
Samuel  T.  Nicholson, 
David  H.  Martin, 

•IBJOjoaia 

i-? 

rt     . 

P 

OO               cnO   ir>  moo  CO 
TtO              oomvOC<^Om 
coco              Tt  M  CO  a  o  yn 
St^            \n  t^t^ci  XT, 
M   u->               O   CO  O  "^ 
N    CO                CI 

•S3JB4S 

CO  r^ 

1 

William  McKinley, 
William  J.  Bryan, 
William  J.  Bryan, 
William  J.  Bryan, 
John  G.  Woolley, 
Joseph  F.  Malloney, 
Eugene  V.  Debs, 
Wharton  Barker, 
Seth  Ellis, 
JonahF.  R.Leonard, 

>< 

Republican, 
Democratic, 
People's  (Fusion), 
Silver  Repub., 
Prohibition, 
Socialist-Labor, 
Social  Dem., 
Populist, 
Union  Reform, 
United  Christian, 

•S9JOA  -13313 

r^ 

•^ 
^ 

•S3JBJS  JO  -O^ 

UTJ3A 

1 

The  Sections,  ijgo-iSdo. 


359 


APPENDIX  E. 
Population  of  the  Sections,  i 790-1860. 


Year, 

Free  States. 

Slave   States. 

1790 

1,968,453 

1,961,374 

1800 

2,684,616 

2,621,316 

1810 

3,758,910 

3,480,902 

1820 

5,152,372 

4,485,819 

1830 

7,006,399 

5,848,312 

1840 

9,733,922 

7,334,433 

1850 

13,599,488 

9,663.997 

i860 

19,128,418 

12,315,372 

36o 


Appendix  F, 


APPENDIX  F. 


Congressional  Representation  of   the  Sec« 
TiONs,  1 790-1860. 


Y.ar. 

Senate. 

House. 

Free  States. 

Slave  States. 

Free  States. 

Slave  States. 

1790 

14 

12 

35 

30 

1792 

16 

14 

57 

48 

1796 

16 

16 

57 

49 

1800 

16 

16 

57 

49 

1804 

18 

16 

77 

65 

1808 

18 

16 

77 

65 

1812 

18 

18 

103 

79 

1816 

20 

18 

104 

79 

1820 

24 

24 

105 

82 

1824 

24 

24 

123 

90 

1828 

24 

24 

123 

90 

1832 

24 

24 

T41 

99 

1836 

26 

26 

142 

100 

1840 

26 

26 

142 

100 

1844 

26 

26 

135 

98 

1848 

30 

30 

139 

91 

1852 

32 

30 

144 

90 

T856 

32 

30 

144 

90 

i860 

36 

30 

147 

90 

^^  To  find  the  Electoral  Votes,  add  together  the  number  of  Senators 
and  Representatives. 


The  Sections  in  iSjo. 


361 


APPENDIX  G. 
The  Sections  in  1870. 


Sections. 


The  South:  (Ala.,  Ark.,  Fla.,  Ga., 
Ky.,  La.,  Md.,  Miss..  N.  C,  S.  C, 
Tenn.,  Tex.,  Va..  W.  V.). 

The  North-west  :  (111. ,  la. ,  Ind. .  Ks. , 
Mich., Minn.,  Mo.,  Neb.,  O.,  Wis.), 

The  Middle  States  :  (Del.,  N.  J.,  N. 
Y.,  Penn.), 

New  England  :  (Conn.,  Mass.,  Me., 
N.  H.,  R.  I.,  Vt.), 

The  Pacific  :  (Cal.,  Col.,  Nev.,  Or.), 

Total, 


Population 
in  1870. 


[2,032,225 

[2,702,299 

8,941,625 

3.187,924 
889,789 


C 

28 

92 

20 

98 

8 

68 

12 

28 

8 

7 

76 

293 

lao 

118 

76 

40 
15 


The  total  population  includes  Territories  and  Indians. 

The  Sections  in  1880. 


Sections. 


The  South , 

The  North-west.  . . 
The  Middle  States 

New  England , 

The  Pacific , 

Total 


Population 
in  1880. 


16,188,757 

17,229,810 

10,644,233 

4,010,438 

1,296,367 


50,155,783 


V 

c 

0 

^ 

ffi 

28 

106 

20 

114 

8 

70 

12 

26 

8 

9 

76 

325 

134 
134 

78 
38 

17 

401 


^^"The  total  population  includes  Territories  and  Indians.     The  Appor- 
tionment Act  of  Feb.  asth,  1882,  took  effect  March  3d,  1883. 


362 


Appendix   G. 


APPENDIX    Q.—Co?iti7med. 
The  Sections  in   1890. 


Sections. 

Population 
in  1890. 

4J 

C 
4, 

0 

0 
> 

5 

The  South 

19,370,094 

22,362,279 

12,869,293 

4.700,745 

2,814,400 

28 
24 

8 
12 

18 

III 

128 
73 
27 

iS 

139 

152 

81 

The  North-west 

The  Middle  States 

New  England 

39 

36 

The  Pacific 

Total 

62,830,155 

90 

357 

447 

J3^^The  new  States  of  Montana,  Washington,  Idaho,  Wyoming,  and 
Utah  are  classed  with  the  Pacific  States.  Tlie  Dakotas  are  classed  with 
the  North-west.  The  total  population  includes  the  Territories.  The 
Apportionment  Act  of  Feb.  7th,  1891,  took  efifect  March  3d,  1893. 

The  Sections  in  1900. 


Sections. 

Population 
in  1900. 

c 

* 

3 
0 

i 
0 
> 

5 

The  South  

23,271,689 

26,335,243 

15,638.531 

5,591,952 

3,773.108 

28 
24 

8 

12 

18 

120 

136 

80 

29 
21 

148 

t6o 

The  North-west 

The  Middle  States 

New  England 

88 
41 
39 

The  Pacific 

Total 

76,215,132 

90 

386 

476 

^^The  States  of  Montana,  Washington,  Idaho,  Wj'oming.  and  Utah 
are  classed  with  the  Pacific  States.  The  Dakotas  are  classed  with  the 
North-west.  The  total  population  includes  the  Territories  (Alaska,  Ariz., 
D.  C,  Hawaii,  Ind.  Terr.,  N.  M.,  Okla.).  The  population  of  Porto  Rica 
was  953,243  according  to  the  census  of  1900. 

♦According  to  the  Apportionment  Act,  passed  Jan.  nth,  1901,  to  tak« 
effect  March  3d,  1903. 


APPENDIX   H. 
Cabinet  Officers  of  the  Administrations. 

I.  AND  II.;  1789-1797  (page  19). 

Secretary  of  State,  Thomas  Jefferson,  Virginia,  Septem. 
ber  26th,  17S9  ;  Edmund  Randolph,  Virginia,  January  2d, 
1794  ;  Timothy  Pickering,  Pennsylvania,  December  loth,  1795. 
Secretary  of  Treasury,  Alexander  Hamilton,  New  York, 
September  nth,  17S9;  Oliver  Wolcott,  Connecticut,  Febru- 
ary 2d,  1795.  Secretary  of  War,  Henry  Knox,  Massachu- 
setts, September  12th,  1789;  Timothy  Pickering,  Pennsyl- 
vania, January  2d,  1795  ;  James  McHenry,  Maryland, 
January  27th,  1796.  Attorney-General,  Edmund  Ran- 
dolph, Virginia,  September  26th,  1789;  William  Bradford, 
Pennsylvania,  January  27th,  1794 ;  Charles  Lee,  Virginia, 
December  loth,  1795.  Postmaster-General,'  E.  Hazard, 
January  28th,  1782-September  29th,  1789  ;  Samuel  Osgood, 
Massachusetts,  September  2gth,  1789  ;  Timothy  Pickering, 
['ennsylvania,  August  12th,  1791  ;  Joseph  Habersham,  Geor- 
gia, February  25th,  1795. 

III.;  1 797-1 801  (page  44). 

Secretary  of  State,  Timothy  Pickering,  continued  ;  John 
Marshall,  Virginia,  May  13th,  1800.  Secretary  of  Treas- 
ury, Oliver  Wolcott,  continued  ;  Samuel  Dexter,  Massachu- 
setts, January  1st,  1801.  Secretary  of  War,  James 
McHenry,   continued ;    Samuel   Dexter,   Massachusetts,  May 

I  Not  a  Cabinet  officer,  but  a  subordinate  of  the  Treasury  Department 
until  1829. 

363 


364  American  Politics. 

13th,  iSoo;  Roger  Griswold,  Connecticut,  February  3d,  1801. 
Secretary  of  Navy,^  George  Cabot,  Massachusetts,  May  3d, 
1798 ;  Benjamin  Stoddert,  Maryland,  May  21st,  1798. 
Attorney-General,  Charles  Lee,  continued ;  Theophilus 
Parsons,  Massachusetts,  February  20th,  1801.  Postmaster- 
General,  Joseph  Habersham,  continued. 

IV.  AND  v.;  1 801-1809  (page  55). 
Secretary  of  State,  James  Madison,  Virginia,  March  5th, 
1 801,  Secretary  of  Treasury,  Samuel  Dexter,  continued  ; 
Albert  Gallatin,  Pennsylvania,  May  14th,  1801.  Secretary 
of  War,  Henry  Dearborn,  Massachusetts,  March  5th,  18O1. 
Secretary  of  Navy,  Benjamin  Stoddert,  continued  ;  Robert 
Smith,  Maryland,  July  15th,  1801  ;  Jacob  Crowninshield, 
Massachusetts,  May  3d,  1805.  Attorney-General,  Levi 
Lincoln,  Massachusetts,  March  5th,  1801  ;  Robert  Smith, 
Maryland,  March  3d,  1805  ;  John  Breckinridge,  Kentucky, 
August  7th,  1805  ;  Caesar  A.  Rodney,  Pennsylvania,  January 
20th,  1807.  Postmaster-General,  Joseph  Habersham,  con- 
tinued ;  Gideon  Granger,  Connecticut,  November  28th,  1801. 

VL  AND  VIL;  1809-1817  (page  73). 
Secretary  of  State,  Robert  Smith,  Maryland,  March  6th, 
1809;  James  Monroe,  Virginia,  April  2d,  1811.  Secretary 
of  Treasury,  Albert  Gallatin,  continued  ;  George  W.  Camp- 
bell, Tennessee,  February  9th,  1814  ;  A.  J.  Dallas,  Pennsyl- 
vania, October  6th,  1814  ;  William  H.  Crawford,  Georgia, 
October  22d,  18 16.  Secretary  of  War,  William  Eustis, 
Massachusetts,  March  7th,  1809 ;  John  Armstrong,  New 
York,  January  13th,  1813  ;  James  Monroe,  Virginia,  Septem- 

I  Naval  affairs  were  under  the  control  of  the  Secretary  of  War  until  a 
separate  Navy  Department  was  organized  by  Act  of  April  30th,  1798.  The 
Acts  organizing  the  other  Departments  were  of  the  following  dates: 
State,  September  15th,  1789;  Treasury,  September  2d,  1789;  VVar, 
August  7th,  1789.  The  Attorney-General's  duties  were  regulated  by  the 
Judiciary  Act  of  September  24th,  1789.  Interior,  March  3d,  1849.  For 
the  establishment  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  see  page  27^. 


Cabinet  Officers  of  the  Administrations.    365 

ber  27th,  1814;  William  H.  Crawford,  Georgia,  August  ist, 
1815.  Secretary  of  Navy,  Paul  Hamilton,  South  Carolina, 
March  7th,  1S09  ;  William  Jones,  Pennsylvania,  January 
I2th,  1813;  B.  W.  Crowninshield,  Massachusetts,  December 
19th,  1S14.  Attorney-General,  C.  A.  Rodney,  continued ; 
William  Pinckney,  Maryland,  December  nth,  iSii  ;  Rich- 
ard Rush,  Pennsylvania,  February  loih,  1814.  Postmaster- 
General,  Gideon  Granger,  continued ;  Return  J.  Meigs, 
Ohio,  March  17th,  1814. 

VIII.  AND  IX.;  1817-1825  (page  89). 
Secretary  of  State,  John  Quincy  Adams,  Massachusetts, 
March  5th,  1817.  Secretary  of  Treasury,  William  H. 
Crawford,  continued.  Secretary  of  War,  George  Graham, 
Virginia,  April  7th.  1S17  ;  John  C.  Calhoun,  South  Caro- 
lina, October  8th,  1817.  Secretary  of  Navy,  B.  W. 
Crowninshield,  continued  ;  Smith  Thompson,  New  York, 
November  gth,  1818  ;  John  Rogers,  Massachusetts,  Septem- 
ber 1st,  1823  ;  Samuel  L.  Southard,  New  Jersey,  September 
i6th,  1823.  Attorney-General,  Richard  Rush,  continued  ; 
William  Wirt,  Virginia,  November  13th,  1817.  Postmaster- 
General,  R.  J.  Meigs,  continued  ;  John  McLean,  Ohio,  June 
26th,  1823. 

X.;  1825-1829  (page  103). 

Secretary  of  State,  Henry  Clay,  Kentucky,  March  7th, 
1825.  Secretary  of  Treasury,  Richard  Rush,  Pennsyl- 
vania, March  7th,  1825.  Secretary  of  War,  James  Bar- 
bour, Virginia,  March  7th,  1825  ;  Peter  B.  Porter,  New  York. 
May  26th,  1828.  Secretary  of  Navy,  S.  L.  Southard, 
continued.  Attorney-General,  William  Wirt,  continued. 
Postmaster-General,  John  McLean,  continued. 

XI.  AND  XII.:   1829-1837  (page  109). 

Secretary  of  State,  Martin  Van  Buren,  New  York, 
March  6th,  1829  ;   Edward  Livingston,  Louisiana,  May  24th, 


366  American  Politics, 

1831  ;  Louis  McLane,  Delaware,  May  29th,  1833  ;  .John 
Forsyth,  Georgia,  June  27ih,  1S34.  Secretary  of  Treas- 
ury, Samuel  D.  Ingham.  Pennsylvania,  March  6th,  1829  ;  Louis 
McLane,  Delaware,  August  8th,  1831  ;  William  J,  Duane, 
Pennsylvania,  May  29th,  1833  ;  Roger  B.  Taney,  Maryland, 
September  23d,  1833  ;  Levi  Woodbury,  New  Hampshire, 
June  27th,  1834.  Secretary  of  War,  John  H.  Eaton,  Te  i- 
nessee,  March  9th,  1829;  Lewis  Cass,  Michigan,  August  1st, 
1831  ;  Benjamin  F.  Butler,  New  York,  March  3d,  1837. 
Secretary  of  Navy,  John  Branch,  North  Carolina,  March 
9lh,  1829  ;  Levi  Woodbury,  New  Hampshire,  May  23d,  1831  ; 
Mahlon  Dickerson,  New  Jersey,  June  30th,  1834.  Attorney- 
General,  John  M.  Berrien,  Georgia,  March  9th,  1839  J  Roger 
B.  Taney,  Maryland,  July  20th,  1831  ;  Benjamin  F.  Butler, 
New  York,  November  15th,  1833.  Postmaster-General, 
William  T.  Barry,  Kentucky,  March  9th,  1829  ;  Amos  Ken- 
dall, Kentucky,  May  ist,  1835. 

XHL;  1837-1841  (page  133). 

Secretary  of  State,  John  Forsyth,  continued.  Secretary 
of'Treasury,  Levi  Woodbury,  continued.  Secretary  of 
War,  Joel  R.  Poinsett,  South  Carolina,  March  7th,  1837. 
Secretary  of  Navy,  Mahlon  Dickerson,  continued  ;  James 
K.  Paulding,  New  York,  June  25th,  1838.  Attorney-Gen- 
eral, Benjamin  F.  Butler,  continued  ;  Felix  Grundy,  Ten- 
nessee, July  5lh,  1838  ;  Henry  D.  Gilpin,  Pennsylvania,  Jan- 
uary iilh,  1840.  Postmaster-General,  Amos  Kendall, 
continued  ;  John  M.  Niles,  Connecticut,  May  19th,  1840. 

XIV.;  1841-1845  (page  140). 

Secretary  of  State,  Daniel  Webster,  Massachusetts, 
March  5th,  1841  ;  Hugh  S.  Legare,  South  Carolina.  May  9th, 
1843  ;  A.  P.  Upshur,  Virginia,  July  24th,  1843  ;  John  C.  Cal- 
houn, South  Carolina,  March  6th,  1844.  Secretary  of 
Treasury,  Thomas  Ewing,  Ohio,  March  5th,  1841  ;  Walter 


Cabinet  Offisers  of  the  Administrations.    367 

Forward,  Pennsylvania,  September  13th,  1841  ;  John  C. 
Spencer,  New  York,  March  3d,  1843  ,  George  M.  Bibb,  Ken- 
tucky, June  15th,  1844.  Secretary  of  War,  John  Bell, 
Tennessee,  March  5th,  1841  ;  John  McLean,  Ohio,  Septem- 
ber I3ih,  1841  ;  John  C.  Spencer,  New  York,  October  I2ih, 
1841  ;  James  M.  Porter,  Pennsylvania,  March  8th,  1S43 ; 
William  Wilkins,  Pennsylvania,  February  15th,  1844.  Sec- 
retary of  Navy,  G.  E.  Badger,  North  Carolina,  March  5ih, 
1841  ;  A.  P.  Upshur,  Virginia,  September  13th,  1841  ;  David 
Henshaw,  Massachusetts,  July  24th,  1843  ;  T.  W.  Gilmer, 
Virginia,  February  I5ih,  1844  ;  John  Y.  Mason,  Virginia, 
March  14th,  1844.  Attorney-General,  John  J.  Crittenden, 
Kentucky,  March  5th,  1841  ;  Hugh  S.  Legare,  South  Caro- 
lina, September  13th,  1841  ;  John  Nelson,  Maryland,  July 
1st,  1843.  Postmaster-General,  Francis  Granger,  New 
York,  March  6th,  1841  ;  Charles  A.  Wickliffe,  Kentucky, 
September  13th,  1841. 

XV.;  1S45-1849  (page  149). 
Secretary  of  State,  James  Buchanan,  Pennsylvania, 
March  6th,  1845.  Secretary  of  Treasury,  Robert  J.  Wal- 
ker, Mississippi,  March  6th,  1845.  Secretary  of  War, 
William  L.  Marcy,  New  York,  March  6th,  1S45.  Secretary 
of  Navy,  George  Bancroft,  Massachusetts.  March  loth,  1845  ; 
John  Y.  Mason,  Virginia,  September  gth,  1846.  Attorney- 
General,  John  Y.  Mason,  Virginia,  March  5th,  1845  ;  Nathan 
Clifford,  Maine,  October  17th,  1846.  Postmaster-General, 
Cave  Johnson,  Tennessee,  March  6th,  1845. 

XVI.;   1859-1853  (page  159). 

Secretary  of  State,  John  M.  Clayton,  Delaware,  March 
7th,  1849  ;  Daniel  Webster,  Massachusetts,  July  22d,  1850  ; 
Edward  Everett,  Massachusetts,  December  6th,  1852.  Sec- 
retary of  Treasury,  W.  M.  Meredith,  Pennsylvania,  March 
8ih,  1849;  Thomas  Corwin,  Ohio,  July  23d,  1850.  Secre- 
tary of  State,  George  W.  Crawford,  Georgia,    March   8th, 


3^8  American  Politics. 

1849  ;  Winfield  Scott  {ad  interim),  July  23d,  1850  ;  Charles 
M.  Conrad,  Louisiana,  August  15th,  1850.  Secretary  of 
Navy,  William  B.  Preston,  Virginia,  March  8th,  1849  ; 
William  A.  Graham,  North  Carolina,  July  22d,  1850  ;  J.  P. 
Kennedy,  Maryland,  July  22d,  1852.  Secretary  of  Inte- 
rior/ Thomas  H.  Ewing,  Ohio,  March  8th,  1849  ;  A.  H.  H. 
Stuart,  Virginia,  September  I2th,  1850.  Attorney-General, 
Reverdy  Johnson,  Maryland,  March  8th,  1849  '»  Jo^"  J- 
Crittenden,  Kentucky,  July  22d,  1850.  Postmaster-Gen- 
eral, Jacob  Collamer,  Vermont,  March  8th,  1849  J  Nathan  K. 
Hall,  New  York,  July  23d,  1850;  S.  D.  Hubbard,  Connecti- 
cut, August  31st,  1852. 

XVH.;  1853-1857  (page  167). 

Secretary  of  State,  William  L.  Marcy,  New  York,  March 
7th,  1853.  Secretary  of  Treasury,  James  Guthrie,  Ken- 
tucky, March  7th,  1853.  Secretary  of  War,  Jefferson 
Davis,  Mississippi,  March  7th,  1853.  Secretary  of  Navy, 
James  C.  Dobbin,  North  Carolina,  March  7th,  1853.  Secre- 
tary of  Interior,  Robert  McClelland,  Michigan,  March  7th, 
1853.  Attorney-General,  Caleb  Gushing,  Massachusetts, 
March  7th,  1853.  Postmaster-General,  James  Campbell, 
Pennsylvania,  March  7th,  1853, 

XVIII.  ;  1857-1861  (page  179). 

Secretary  of  State,  Lewis  Cass,  Michigan,  March  6th, 
1857;  J.  S.  Black,  Pennsylvania,  December  17th,  i860.  Sec- 
retary of  Treasury,  Howell  Cobb,  Georgia,  March  6th, 
1857  ;  Philip  F.  Thomas,  Maryland,  December  I2th,  i860  ; 
John  A.  Dix,  New  York,  January  nth,  1861,  Secretary  of 
War,  John  B.  Floyd,  Virginia,  March  6th,  1857  ;  Joseph 
Holt,  Kentucky,  January  i8th,  1861.  Secretary  of  Navy, 
Isaac  Toucey,  Connecticut,  Miarch  6th,  1857.  Secretary  of 
Interior,   Jacob   Thompson,  Mississippi,    March   6th,    1857. 

I  Organized  by  Act  of  March  3d,  1849. 


Cabinet  Officers  of  the  Administrations.    369 

Attorney-General,  J.  S.  Black,  Penns,ylvania,  March  6th, 
1857  ;  E.  M.  Stanton,  Pennsylvania,  December  20th,  i860. 
Postmaster-General,  Aaron  V.  Brown,  Tennessee,  March 
6th,  1S57  ;  Joseph  Holt,  Kentucky,  March  14th,  1859  ;  Hora- 
tio King,  Maine,  February  12th,  1861. 

XIX.  AND  XX.;  1861-1S69  (page  197). 
Secretary   of    State,   William   H.    Seward.    New  York, 
March   5th,    1861.     Secretary  of  Treasury,   S.    P.   Chase, 
Ohio,  March  5th,  1861  ;    W.  P.  Fessenden,   Maine,  July  ist, 
1864  ;    Hugh  McCulloch,  Indiana,  March  7th,  1865.     Secre- 
tary of  War,    Simon   Cameron,    Pennsylvania,    March    5th, 
1 861  ;    Edwin  M.  Stanton,  Pennsylvania,  January  15th,  1862  ; 
U.  S.   Grant  {ad  interim),^  August   I2th,    1867  ;   Edwin   M. 
Stanton  (reinstated),  January  14th,  1868  ;   J.  M,  Scofield,  Illi- 
nois, May  28th,  1868.     Secretary  of  Navy,  Gideon  Welles, 
Connecticut,  March  5th,  1861.     Secretary  of  Interior,  Caleb 
P.  Smith,  March  5th,  1861  ;  John  P.  Usher,  Indiana,  January 
8th,    1863  ;   James   Harlan,    Iowa,    May  15th,    1865 ;    O.    H 
Browning,    Illinois,    July   27th,    1866.      Attorney-General 
Edward  Bates,  Missouri,  March  5th,  1861  ;    Titian  J.  Coffee^ 
June    22d,    1863  ;    James  Speed,    Kentucky,    December    2d, 
1864;    Henry  Stanbery,  Ohio,  July  23d,  1866;    William  M 
Evaris,    New  York,   July  15,  1868.     Postmaster-General 
Montgomery  "Blair,    Maryland,    March    5th,    1861  ;    William 
Dennison,  Ohio,  September  24th,  1864  ;    Alexander  W.  Ran 
dall,  Wisconsin,  July  25th,  1866. 

XXI.  AND  XXII.  :  1869-1877  (page  220). 
Secretary  of  State,  E.  B.  Washburne,  Illinois,  March  5th, 
1869  ;  Hamilton  Fish,  New  York,  March  nth,  1869.  Secre- 
tary of  Treasury,  George  S.  Boutwell,  Massachusetts,  March 
nth,  1869  ;  William  A.  Richardson,  Massachusetts,  March 
17th,  1873  ;  Benjamin  H.  Bristow,  Kentucky,  June  2d,  1874; 
Lot  M.  Merrill,  Maine,  June  21st,  1876.     Secretary  of  War, 

I  See  p.  216. 


370  American  Politics. 

John  A.  Rawlins,  Illinois,  March  nth,  1869;  William  T.  Sher- 
man,  Ohio,  September  9th,  1869;  William  W.  Belknap,  Iowa, 
October  25th,  1869;  Alphonso  Taft,  Ohio.  March  8th,  1876; 
J.  D.  Cameron,  Pennsylvania,  May  22d,  1876.  Secretary  of 
Navy,  Adolph  E.  Borie,  Pennsylvania,  March  5th,  1869  ; 
George  M.  Robeson,  New  Jersey,  June  25th,  1869.  Secretary 
of  Interior,  John  D.  Cox,  Ohio,  March  5  th,  18C9  ;  Columbus 
Delano,  Ohio,  November  1st,  1870;  Zachariah  Chandler,  Mich- 
igan, October  19th,  1875.  Attorney-General,  E.  R.  Hoar, 
Massachusetts,  March  5th,  1869;  Amos  T.  Akerman,  Georgia, 
June  23d,  1S70;  George  H.  Williams,  Oregon,  December  I4ih, 
1871  ;  Edwards  Pierrepont,  New  York,  April  26th,  1875  ;  Al- 
phonso Taft,  Ohio,  May  22d,  1876.  Postmaster-General, 
J.  A.  J.  Creswell,  Maryland,  March  5th,  1869;  Marshall  Jewell, 
Connecticut,  August  24th,  1874  \  James  M.  Tyner,  Indiana, 
July  I2th,  1876. 

XXIII.;  1877-1881  (page  249). 
Secretary  of  State,  William  M.  Evarts,  New  York,  March 
I2th,  1877.  Secretary  of  Treasury,  John  Sherman,  Ohio, 
March  8th,  1877.  Secretary  of  War,  George  W.  McCrary, 
Iowa,  March  12th,  1877  ;  Alexander  Ramsey,  Minnesota,  De- 
cember I2th,  1879.  Secretary  of  Navy,  Richard  W.  Thomp- 
son, Indiana,  March  I2th,  1877  ;  Nathan  GofT,  Jr.,  West  Vir- 
ginia, January  6th,  188 1.  Secretary  of  Interior,  Carl  Schurz, 
Missouri,  March  12th.  1877.  Attorney-General,  Charles 
Devens,  Massachusetts.  March  r2th,  1877.  Postmaster- 
General,  David  M.  Key,  Tennessee,  March  12th,  1877  ; 
Horace  Maynard,  Tennessee,  August  25th,  1880. 

XXIV.;  1881-1885  (page  259). 
Secretary  of  State,  James  G.  Blaine,  Maine,  March  5th, 
1881  ;  Frederick  T.  Frelinghuysen,  New  Jersey,  December 
I2th,  1881.  Secretary  of  Treasury,  William  H.  Windom, 
Minnesota,  March  5th,  1881  ;  Charles  J.  Folger,  New  York, 
October  27th,  1881.     Secretary  of  War,  Robert  T.  Lincoln, 


Cabinet  Officers  of  the  Admhiistrations,  371 

Illinois,  March  5th,  1S81.  Secretary  of  Navy,  W.  H.  Hunt, 
Louisiana,  March  5th,  188 1  ;  Wm.  E.  Chandler,  New  Hamp- 
shire, April  1 2th,  1882.  Secretary  of  Interior,  S.  J.  Kirkwood, 
Iowa,  March  5th,iS8i  ;  Henry  M.Teller,  Colo.,  April 6th,  1882. 
Attorney-General,  Wayne  MacVeagh,  Pennsylvania,  March 
5th,  1881  ;  Benjamin  H.  Brewster,  Pennsylvania,  December 
i6th,  1881.  Postmaster-General,  Thomas  L.  James,  New 
York,  March  5th,  1881  ;  Timothy  O.  Howe,Wisconsin,  Decem- 
ber 20th,  1881  ;  W.  Q.  Gresham,  Indiana,  April  3rd,  1883  ; 
Frank  Hatton,  Iowa,  October  14th,  1884. 

XXV.;  1S85-1889  (page  268). 
Secretary  of  State,  Thomas  F.  Bayard,  Delaware,  March 
6th,  18S5.  Secretary  of  Treasury,  Daniel  Manning,  New 
York,  March  6th,  1885  ;  Charies  S.  Fairchild,  New  York, 
April  1st,  1887.  Secretary  of  War,  William  C.  Endicott, 
Massachusetts,  March  6th,  1885.  Secretary  of  Navy,  Will- 
iam C.  Whitney,  New  York,  March  6th,  1885.  Secretary 
of  Interior,  Lucius  Q.  C.  Lamar,  Mississippi,  March  6th,  1S85; 
William  F.  Vilas,  Wisconsin,  January  i6th,  1888.  Attorney- 
General,  Augustus  H.  Garland,  Arkansas,  March  6th,  1885. 
Postmaster-General,  William  F.  Vilas,  Wisconsin,  March 
6th,  1S85  ;  Don  M.  Dickinson,  Michigan,  January  i6th,  1888, 
XXVI.;  1889-1893  (page  280). 
Secretary  of  State,'  James  G.  Blaine,  Maine,  March  7th, 
1SS9  ;  John  W.  Foster,  Indiana,  June  29th,  1892.  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury,  William  Windom.  Minnesota,  March  7tli, 
1889;  Charles  Foster,  Ohio,  February  25tli.  1891.  Secretary 
of  War,  Rcdfieid  Proctor,  Vermont,  March  7th,  1889; 
Stephen  B.  Flkiiis,  West  Virginia,  December  24tli,  1891. 
Attorney-General,  W.  H.  H.  Miller,  Indiana,  March  7th, 
1889.  Postmaster-General,  John  Wanamaker,  Pennsylva- 
nia, March  7th,  1889.  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  Benj.  F. 
Tracy,    New   York,    March   7th,   18S9.     Secretary   of  the 

I  The  Cabinet  is  here  arranged  in  the  order  of  succession  for  the  Presi- 
dency according  to  Act  of  XLlXth  Congress,  which  does  act,  however, 
include  the  Secretary'  of  Agricuhure. 


372  American  Politics. 

Interior,  John  W.  Noble,  Missouri,  March  7th,  1889.  Sec- 
retary of  Agriculture,  Jere.  M.  Rusk,  Wisconsin,  March 
7th,  1S89. 

XXVII.;  1893-1897  (page  290). 
Secretary  of  State,  Walter  Q.  Gresham,  Illinois,  March 
7th,  1893  ;  Richard  Olney,  Massachusetts,  June  loth,  1895. 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  John  G.  Carlisle,  Kentucky, 
March  7th,  1893.  Secretary  of  War,  Daniel  S.  Lament, 
New  York,  March  7th,  1893.  Attorney-General,  Richard 
Olney,  Massachusetts,  March  7th,  1893  ;  Judson  Harmon, 
Ohio,  June  nth,  1895.  Postmaster-General,  Wilson  S. 
Bissell,  New  York,  March  7th,  1893  ;  William  L.  Wilson, 
West  Virginia,  April  3d,  1895.  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 
Hilary  A.  Herbert,  Alabama,  March  7th,  1893.  Secretary 
of  the  Interior,  Hoke  Smith,  Georgia,  March  7th,  1893  ; 
David  R.  Francis,  Missouri,  September  3d,  1896.  Secretary 
of  Agriculture,  Julius  Sterling  Morton,  Nebraska,  March 
7th,  1893. 

XXVIII.    and    XXIX.;    1897- 

Secretary  of  State,  John  Sherman,  Ohio,  March  6th, 
1897;  William  R.  Day,  Ohio,  April  26th,  1898;  John  Hay, 
Ohio,  September  30th,  1898.  Secretary  of  the  Treasury, 
Lyman  J.  Gage,  Illinois,  March  6th,  1897.  Secretary  of 
War,  Russell  A.  Alger,  Michigan,  March  6th,  1897  ;  Elilni 
Root,  New  York,  July  22d,  1899.  Attorney-General, 
Joseph  McKenna,  California,  March  6th,  1897  ;  John  W. 
Griggs,  New  Jersey,  January  31st,  189S  ;  Philander  C.  Knox^ 
Pennsylvania,  April  5th,  1901.  Postmaster-General,  James 
A.  Gary,  Maryland,  March  6th,  1897  ;  Charles  Emory  Smith, 
Pennsylvania,  April  2ist,  1898.  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 
John  D.  Long,  Massachusetts,  March  6th,  1897.  Secretary 
of  the  Interior,  Cornelius  N.  Bliss,  New  York,  March  6th, 
1S97;  Ethan  Allen  Hitchcock,  Missouri,  December  21st, 
1898.  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  James  Wilson,  Iowa, 
March  6th,  1897. 


INDEX. 


INDEX. 


Abolitionists,    the,   131,    132,  138, 

139.  140-1451  147-150.  187,  188 
Abolition  of  slavery,  18,  201-204 
Adams,  Charles  Francis,  157,  230, 

354 
Adams,  John,  19,  28,  ag,  42,  43,  52, 

53.  58,  349-351  ;  President,  43-54; 

Vice-President,  iq-43 
Adams,   John   Quincy,  71,  72,  97, 

100-106,  108,  109,  136,  142,  352,  353, 

365  ;  President,  102-108 
Adams,  JohnQuincy,  Jr.,  230,  355 
Adams,  Samuel,  350 
Admission  of  States,  348 
Adrain,  G.  B.,  188 
African  slave  trade,  12,  144,   161, 

T82,  184 
Africans,  naturalization  of,  222 
Agricultural  colleges,  201 
Agricultural  depression,  283 
Agricultural  prosperity,  290 
Agriculture,   Bureau  of,  267,  279; 

Department  of,  267,  279 
Akerman,  Amos  T.,  370 
Alabama,  128,  355  ;  admitted,  93, 

348  ;    secedes,    193,  199 ;   re-ad- 
mitted, 221 
Alabama  Claims,  225 
Alexander  I.,  Czar  of  Russia,  81 
Alger,  Russell  A.,  372 
Algiers,   9,  34,  38 ;    declares  war 

against  the  United  States,  9 
Alien  and    sedition   laws,  47-50. 

56,  62,  106,  225 
Aliens.  84,  169,  222,  288,  297 
AU-American  Congress,  275 

Ambrister, ,  execution  of,  91 

American  Alliance,  266 
American  commerce,  9,  34,  36,  38, 

39,  46,  59,  64,  69-71,  75,  84,  86,  log, 

266 
American     Continental    policy, 

26^ 


American  Federation  of  Labor, 
274 

American  fisheries,  271 

American  Party,  169,  190,  278,  354. 
See  also  Know  -  NOTHING 
Party 

Arnerican  Protective  Associa- 
tion, 2g7 

American  Railwaj--  Union,  295 

American  Republics,  Congress 
of,  105 

American  tariff  system,  22 

American  Whigs,  5,  6 

Ames,  Gov.  A.,  23g 

Ames,  Fisher,  40 

Ames,  Oakes,  231 

Amnesty,  208,  212,  228,  229,  241,  293 

Anarchists,  270,  271 

Annapolis,  Convention  at  (1786), 
ro 

Annexation:  of  Florida,  91  ;  of 
Louisiana,  61  ;  of  Texas.  145-148 

Anti-Federal  Party,  i,  15-17, 
20-24,  25-28.  See  also  Demo- 
cratic-Republican  Party 

Anti-Lecompton  Democrats,  186, 
188 

Anti-Masonic  Party,  109,  no,  118, 
iig,  128,  137,  353 

Anti-Nebraska  Men.  169-171 

Anti-Polygamy  bill,  261,  272,  286 

Anti-Slavery  Society,  131 

Appointment,  Presidential  pow- 
er of,  105,  127,  247,  252,  262 

Apportionment  Acts,  26,  261, 
283,  360,  361 

Arbitration,  271,  2g6 

Arbuthnot,  ,  execution  of,  91 

Arista,  General,  150 

Arkansas,  ig3,  232,  239,  355  ;  ad- 
mitted. 129,  348  ;  secedes,  igg ; 
re-admitted,  221  ;  suffrage  in, 
^-^ ;  election  troubles,  239 


37^ 


Index. 


Armenian  outrages,  298 
"Armies  of  the    Unemployed," 

294,  295 
Armstrong,  James,  349 
Armstrong,  John,  364 
Army.     See    United    States 

Army 
Army  of  Northern  Virginia,  207 
Arrears  of  pensions,  253 
Arthur,    Chester  A.,  256,  258-262, 

267  ;    Vice-President,      258-260, 

356  ;  President,  260-267 
Articles  of  Confederation,  7-10, 

J03-317 
Ashbiirton  Treaty,  144 
Australian    method    of    voting, 

286 

Babcock,  O.  E.,  239 

Badger,  G.  E.,  367 

Baez,  Buenaventura,  234 

Baker  County,  Fla.,  the  elec- 
toral count  in,  245,  246 

Ballot  reform,  276,  278,  286 

Baltimore,  national  conventions 
in,  ri8,  128,  138,  145, 146,  156,  164, 
176,  190,  191,  205,  230 

"Baltimore,"  the,  attack  on  sail- 
ors of,  285 

Bancroft,  George,  286 

Bank,  National,  the  first,  24,  25, 
74,  75  ;  the  second,  87,  90  ;  over- 
thro'vn  by  Jackson,  111-126 ; 
substitute  for,  141 

Bank  of  the  United  States.  See 
National  Bank 

Banks,  suspension  of,  291 

Banks,  Nathaniel  P.,  Jr.,  170,  355 

Barbour,  James,  365 

Barbour,  P.  P.,  98 

Barker,  Wharton,  358 

Barnburners,  156 

Barry,  William  T.,  366 

Bates,  Edward,  369' 

Battles :  Bull  Run,  200 ;  New- 
Orleans,  107  ;  Palo  Alto,  150  ; 
Resaca  de  la  Palma,  150 

Baxter,  Elisha,  239 

Bayard,  Thomas  F.,  260,  371 

Belknap,  W.  W,,  242,  370 

Bell,  John,  191,  196,  354,  367 

Bentfey,  Charles  E.,  301.  357 

Benton,  Thomas  H.,  130 

Bering  Sea,  284 

Berrien,  John  M.,  366 

Bibb,  George  M.,  367 

Bidwell,  Gen.  John,  288,  357 

"  Biglow  Papers,"  151 


"  Billion-Dollar  Congress,"  38a 

Bill  of  Rights,  21 

Birney,   James  G.,  138,   145,   147, 

Bissell,  Wilsons.,  372 

Black,  James,  355 

Black,  Jere.  S.,  368,  369 

Black  Cockade  Federalists,  56 

"  Black  List,"  the,  263,  286 

Black  Republican,  171 

Blaine,  James  G.,  220,  225,  231,  235, 

243,  256,  265,  277,  356,  370,  371 
Blaine  Amendment,  241 
Blair,  Francis  P.,  218,  219,  355 
Blair,  Montgomery,  369 
Blair  educational  bill,  264,  275 
Bland-Allison  law.     See   BLAND 

Silver  BiLL'^ 
Bland  silver  bill,  250,  251,  281 
Bliss,  Cornelius  N.,  372 
Blockades,  69,  77,  82,  200,  208 
Bloody  bill,  the,  121 
Bonaparte,  Napoleon,  52,  59,  82 
Bonds,  250,  251  ;  purchase  of,  275  ; 

sales  of,  290,  293,  296,  298 
Booth,  Newton,  242 
Border  Ruffians,  172,  173 
Border  States  Men,  204 
Borie,  Adolph  E.,  370 
Boston,  Mass.,  32,  131 
Boundary  disputes,  109,  144,  146, 

147,  150-154 
Boutwell,  George   S.,  231,  369 
Boycott,  the,  265,  271,  286 
Boyd,  Linn,  leg."  167 
Bradford,  William,  363 
Bramlette,  T.  E.,  355 
Branch,  John,  366 
Brazil,  225 

Breckinridge,  John,  364 
Breckinridge,   John   C,  176,  178, 

190-192,  196,  197,  354 
Brewster,  Benjamin  H.,  371 
Bribery,  188,  189,  231,  239,  242,  278 
Bristow,  Benjamin  H.,  243,  369 
British  colonies.   United    States 

commerce  with,  log 
British  Guiana,  297 
Broad  Constructionist  Party,  2 
Broad  Seal  War,  136 
Brooks,  James,  231 
Brooks,  John  A.,  278 
Brooks,  Joseph,  239 
Brooks,  Preston  S.,  175 
Brown,  Aaron  V.,  369 
Brown,  B.  Gratz,  228,  230,  232,  355 
Brown,  John,  187 
Browning,  O.  H.,  369 


Index. 


177 


Brussels  Monetary  Conferen^ 

Bryan,  William  J.,  300,  357,  35 
Buchanan,  James,    176,   178,    179, 
185,   i87-i8g,  igs,   354,  367  ;  Pres- 
ident, 178-196 
Buckner,  Simon  B.,  300,  357 
Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  national  conven- 
tions  at,  145,    157  ;    labor  riots 
at,  288 
Bullion,   281.      See    also   GOLD  ; 

Silver 
Bull  Run.  battle  of,  200 
Bureau  of  Agriculture,  267 


Burr,  Aaron,  29,  42,  43,  52-54,  56, 
62,    66-68,    3.  ■       " 

ident,  53-63 


).   42,  43, 

331 ;  ^ 


''ice-Pres- 


Butler,  Andrew  Pickens,  175 

Butler,  Benjamin  F.,  of  Mas- 
sachusetts, 201,  266,  356 

Butler,  Benjamin  F.,  of  New 
York,  366 

Butler,  William  O.,  156,  158,  354 

Cabinets,  363-372 
Cabot,  George,  364 
Calhoun,  John  C.,  75,  101-103,  105, 
108,  109,  112,  115,  116,  118,  119,  121, 
125,   134,  138,   352,  353,   365,    366; 
\  ice-President,  108-121 
California,   152,  155,    157,  158,  160, 
161,  164,  177,  257  ;  admitted,   162, 
348  ;  labor  riots,  295 
Calls  for  troops,  199,  200,  203 
Cameron,  J.  D.,  370 
Cameron,  Simon,  369 
"Campaign  of  Education,"  301 
Campbell,  George  W.,  364 
Campbell,  James,  368 
Canada,    59,   72,   76,    83,    109 ;  re- 
taliation    against,      272,     276; 
boundary    dispute,    109 ;    fish- 
eries,   269,    271  ;     sealers,     284, 
299  ;  reciprocity  with,  285 
Canal,  Nicaraguan  ship,  296,  302 
Canals,  67,  99,  100,  106,  196 
Capital,  the  national,  23,  24,  53 
Capital  and  labor,  263,    265,   266, 

270,  271,  274.  276 
Carlisle,  John  G.,  263,  269,  274,  372 
Cary,  Samuel  F.,  242,  356 
Cass,  Lewis,  156,  158,  354,  366,  368 
Caucus  nominations,  52,  100,  108 
Censure  :  of  Brooks,  175  ;  of  Gid- 
dings,  143  ;  of  Jackson,  125,  130 
Census,  the  eleventh,  282 
Centenary  of  the    Constitution 
(1887),  274 


entennial  Exhibition  (1876),  242 

Central  America,  183,  275 

Central  government,  2,  3,  7,  12- 
14,  21,  56,  287 

Chambers,  B.  T.,  256,  356 

Chandler,  William  E.,  371 

Chandler,  Zacharias,  370 

Charleston,  S.  C,  Federal  oc- 
cupation of  harbor  (1832),  120; 
nominating  convention  at,  189, 
190  ;  in  the  civil  war,  195 

Chase,  Salmon  P.,  217,  222,  369 

Chase,  Samuel,  impeachment  of, 
61-63 

Cheap  money,  266 

Cherokee  Indian  case,  104,  114, 
119 

Chesapeake  Bay,  10 

"  Chesapeake,"  and  "  Leopard  " 
affair,  68,  69,  75 

Chicago,  111.,  nominating  con- 
ventions at,  191,  205,  218,  255, 
256,  265,  277,  287,  299,  300 ;  an- 
archist riots,  270 ;  Columbian 
Exposition,  282,  285,  291  ;  labor 
riots,  295 

Chili,  285 

Chinese  exclusion,  256,  261,  266, 
276,  285,  292 

Cincinnati,  Ohio,  nominating 
conventions  at,  176,  229,  230, 
242,  256,  288  ;  riots  at,  265 

Cipher  telegrams,  251 

Circuit  courts,  284 

Civil  Rights  bill,  210,  227,  238 

Civil  service,  introduction  of 
the  spoils  system,  112,  113,149; 
reform  under  Grant,  227,  229, 
230 ;  attention  called  to,  244,  - 
254.  260,  265,  266  ;  approved  by 
Arthur,  261  ;  Pendleton  Act, 
262,  268  ;  under  Cleveland,  368- 
271,  273,  276-279,  294  ;  Civil  Ser- 
vice Commission,  270,  282,  286, 
294  ;  dissatisfaction  with,  273  ; 
extension  of,  276,  278,  279  ;  re- 
port of  Civil  Service  Commis- 
sion, 286  ;  the  Commission  sus- 
tained. 294  ;  under  Harrison, 
282,  286,  287 

Civil  war,  the,  25,  60,  92,  198-207 

Clay,  Henry,  75,  81,  86,  89,  90,  93, 
95,  96,  99-101.  103,  105,  no,  118, 
121-123.  125,  130,  137,  145-148,  i6i. 

^  169,  353.  354.  365 

Clayton,  John  M.,  367 

Cleveland,  Grover,  262,  266-277, 
279,  287,  289,  292,  293,  295,  298,  299, 


378 


Index. 


Cleveland,  Grover— continued 

301,  302,    356,    357 ;     President, 

267-279,  289-302 
Cleveland,      Ohio,     nominating 

convention  at,  205 
Clifford,  Nathan,  367 
Clinton,  De  Witt,  76,  79,  352 
Clinton,  George,  28.  29,  62,  63,  70, 

72,  349-351  ;  Vice-Presidentt  63- 

7Q 

Coahuila,  131 

Coal-mine  strikes,  294 

Cobb,  Howell,  161,  368 

Cochrane,  John  C,  205 

Coffee.  Titian  J.,  369 

"Coin,"  the  word,  291 

Coinage,  250,  251,  253,  254,  261,  267, 
272,  283,  287,  292-294,  296,  299-301 

Colfax,  Schuyler,  204,  209,  215, 
218-220,  230,  231,  355  ;  Vice-Presi- 
dent, 219-233 

Colfax,  La.,  outrages  at,  236 

Collamer,  Jacob,  368 

Colonial  times,  3-6 

Colorado,  195 ;  admitted,  842, 
348 

Colored  vote,  240,  245,  253,  265 

Color  line,  the,  227 

Colquitt,  A.  H.,  355  \ 

Columbia,  S.  C.,  Nullification 
convention  at,  120 

Columbian  Exposition,  282,  285, 
291 

Columbia  River,  152 

Commerce,  State  regulation  of, 
8 ;  Federal  regulation  and  im- 
provement of,  21,  84,  94,  155. 
See  also  American  Com- 
merce ;  Interstate  Com- 
merce ;  Shipping 

Commercial  distress,  83,  290-292. 
See  also  Financial  Distress 

Commercial  prosperity,  290 

Commercial  treaties,  9.  See 
also  Jay's  Treaty  ;  Trea- 
ties 

Compromises  :  of  i82o(Missouri), 
60,  94,  95,  148,  154,  155,  160,  166- 
168,  172,  175,  176,  179,  181,  206  ;  of 
1850,  162-168,  181 ;  of  i860  (Crit- 
tenden), 194 

Compromise  tariff  of  1833,  121, 
143 

Compulsory  arbitration  bill,  296 

Confederate  States,  194,  197-199, 
206,  257 

Confederation,  Articles  of,  7  et 
seq.,  303-317  ;  revision  of,  10 


Confiscation,  200,  201 ;  of  Mor- 
mon property,  293 

Congress,  Peace,  194 

Congress,  United  States.  See 
United  States  Congress 

Congressional  representation  of 
the  sections,  358 

Congress  of  American  Repub- 
lics, 105 

Congress  of  the  Confederacy,  17 

Conkling,  Roscoe,  260 

Connecticut,  62,  78,  81,  83,  84,  87, 
244  ;  ratified  the  Constitution, 
348.  See  also  Hartford  Con- 
v^ention 

Conrad,  Charles  M.,  368 

Conscription,  83,  203,  204 

Conservatives,  135,  142,  156,  239 

Conspiracy,  200,  226,  271,  295 

Constitution.  See       UNITED 

States  Constitution 

Constitutional  Convention  of 
1787  ;  10  et  seq. 

Constitutional  Union  Party,  191, 

197,  3S4,         ^      ^ 
Contraband  of  war,"  201 

Convention  of  Officeholders,  146 

Convention  of  1786,  10 

Convention  of  1787,  10  et  seq. 

Convention  of  1827,  152 

Conventions,  Federal  Constitu- 
tional, in  the  States,  16 

Conventions,  nominating,  108, 
118,  119,  128,  137,  138,  145,  146,  156, 
157,  160,  164,  165,  17s,  176,  189-191, 
205,  208,  218,  229,  230,  242,  243,  255, 
256,  265,  266,  277,  278,  286-288,  299- 
301 

Cooper,  Peter,  242,  356 

Copperheads,  205 

Copyright,  international,  284 

Corporal's  Guard,  142 

Corporations,  256,  263,  265,  266, 
273,  288 

Corwin,  Thomas,  367 

Court  of  Claims,  272 

Courts,  United  States.  See 
United  States  Courts 

Coushatta,  La.,  outrages  at,  236 

Covode  investigation,  188,  189 

Cox,  John  D.,  370 

Cranfill,  J.  B..  288,  357 

Crawford,  George  W.,  367 

Crawford,  William  H.,  75,  87,  100- 
102,  104,  III,  352,  364,  365 

Credit  Mobilier,  231 

Creswell,  J.  A.  J.,  370 

Crisp,  Charles  F.,  285,   293 


Index. 


379 


Crittenden,  John  J.,  194,  367,  368 
Crittenden  Compromise,  194 
Crowninshield,  B.  W.,  365 
Crowninshield,  Jacob,  364 
Cuba,  182,  183,  190,  2q8,  299,  301 
Cumberland  Road,  98 
Currency,  25,  55,  129,  133,  134,  140, 
146,   171,    202,  222,   242,   250,   251, 
253,  256,  266,  267,  281,  283,  287,  288, 
290,    291.    See    also  Coinage  ; 
Gold;   Legal    Tender;    Pa- 
per Currency  ;  Silver 
Currency  reform,  296 
Cushing,  Caleb,  368 
Cyclones,  263 

Dakota,  195,  See  also  NORTH 
Dakota  ;  South  Dakota 

Dallas,  A.  J.,  364 

Dallas,  George  M.,  146,  148,  354 ; 
Vice-President,  148-158 

Daniel,  William,  266,  356 

Davis,  David,  260,  355 

Davis,  Jefferson,  195,  368  ;  Pres- 
ident   of  Confederate  States, 

195 

Davis,  John  W.,  150 

Day,  William  R.,  372 

Dayton,  Jonathan,  39,  45 

Dayton,  William  L.,  176-178,  354 

Dearborn,  Henry,  364 

Debs,  Eugene  V.,  358  [191 

Declaration  of  Independence,  21, 

Defalcations,  197 

Defective  administration  of 
justice,  264 

Deficiency  of  revenue,  291,  293, 
296 

Delano,  Columbus,  370 

Delaware,  62,  87,  106,  206;  stays 
in  the  Union,  199  ;  ratifies  the 
Constitution,  348 

Democratic  clubs,  32,  36,  37 

Democratic  Party,  27,  104,  106- 
III,  113,  115,  119,  125-129,  133,  134, 
136-138,  140-142,  <^,  1-147,  149,  150, 
152-157,  159-165,  167-172,  176,  177, 
179,  181,  182,  184-T86,  i88-i(;3,  197- 
201,  204,  205,  207,  209,  213,  215,  218, 
220,  223-225,  227-236,  239-241,  243- 
247,  249,  250,  252,  253,  255-257,  259, 
260,  262-265,  267,  268,  270,  272-274, 
277,  279,  280,  285,  287,  288,  290,  291, 
294,  297,  299,  300,  302,  353-357 ; 
nominating  conventions,  119, 
128,  138,  146,  156,  164, 176,  189,  190, 
205,  218,  230,  243,  256,  265,  266,  277, 
287,  299,    300;  overthrows  the 


Democratic  Va.rty— continued 
United  States  Bank,  113-126; 
supports  war  with  Mexico, 
146  ;  ruled  by  Southern  mem- 
bers, 167,  182  ;  division  of,  190  ; 
opposes  war  against  the 
South,  205  ;  opposes  Recon- 
struction by  Congress,  218 ; 
sudden  increase  of  influence, 
240  ;  supports  reduction  of  the 
tariff,  277 

Democratic-Republican  Party, 
founded,  i,  27 ;  first  great 
success,  53,  56,  57  ;  supports 
war  with  England,  76 ;  divi- 
sion of,  86.  See  also  DEMO- 
CRATIC Party 

Demonetization  of  silver,  250,  261 

Dennison,  William,  369 

Department  of  Agriculture,  267, 
279 

Dependent  Parents  and  Dis- 
abilities Act,  281 

Dependent  Pension  bill,  272 

De  Trobriand,  Gen.,  237 

Devens,  Charles,  370 

Dexter,  Samuel,  363,  364 

Dickerson,  Mahlon,  366 

Dickinson,  Don  M.,  371 

Diplomatists,      offensive,    31-33, 

37,  74 
Direct  taxation,  36,  55,  288 
Disputed  elections,  18,  53,  54,  loi, 

102,  245-249 
District    of    Columbia,    131,    162, 

212 
Division  of   Surplus    Revenue, 

106,  113,  129,  135,  142,  i43i  146 
Dix,  John  A.,  368 
Dobbin,  James  C,  368 
"  Domestic  violence,"  237,  254 
Dominica,  224,  234 
Donelson,  A.  J.,  176,  178,  354 
Donnelly,  Ignatius,  358 
Dough-Faces,  95 
Douglas,   Stephen   A.,    181,     185, 

1S9,  190-192,  194,  196,  197,  354 
Draft  Acts :  of    1814,  83  ;  of  1863, 

203,  204 
Draft  riots,  204 

Dred  Scott  case,  179-181,  190,  195 
Duane,  William  J.,  123,  124,  366 
Durell,  Judge,  233,  236 

Eagle,  the  American,  32 
Eastern  harbor  bill,  144,  145.  148 
Eaton,  John  H.,  366 
Edmunds,  George  F.,  255,  261,  263 


38o 


Index. 


Education,  67,   186,   187,  211,  241, 

264 
Eight-hours  movement,  285,  286, 
Election  frauds,  232,  236,  244-248, 

251,  265 
Election  laws,  general,  59,  60,  61, 

222,  224,  228,  253-255 
Elections,      Presidential,       pro- 
posed   popular    method,    113; 

dangers  of,  238 
Electoral  Commission,  the,  247, 

248 
Electoral  Count  Act,  271,  272 
Electoral  counts,  19,  29,43,  53,  54, 

63.  72,  79,  80,  87,   96,  97,   loi,  102, 

108,  122,  132,  139,  148,  158,  166,  178, 
196,  206,  219,  232,  245-249,  255,  257, 
258,  267,  279,  288,  301 

Electoral  methods,  238,  241,  250, 

255 
Electoral  votes,  261,  349-357,  359- 

361 
Electors,  mode  of  choosing,  19, 

109,  3301  343 

Elkins,  Stephen  B.,  371 
Ellenton,  S.  C,  244 
Ellis,  Seth,  358 
Ellmaker,  Amos,  118,  122,  353 
Ellsworth,  Oliver,  350 
Emancipation,  18,  201-204,  229 
Embargo  Act,  50,  68,  70-72,  76,  82. 
See     also     NON-lNTERCOURSE 
Act 
Emigration  societies,  173 
Endicott,  William  C,  371 
Enfranchisement,  228,  229 
England,  4-6,  9.  20,   21,  33,  39,  42, 
44.  46.  53.  59.  60,  64-79,  81,  92,  117. 
118,  126,  146,  147,  152,  153,  183,  262, 
284 ;    war  with    France,  "30    et 
seq.,    69 ;     war      with    United 
States    (1812),   68,   77-79,   81-86 ; 
difficulties  with,  73,  77,  109,  152, 
153.  284,  297-299  ;  peace  with,  85; 
Treaty  of    1783,  9,   34  ;    Treaty 
of   1795  (Jay's),   37-40,  44,  61,  67: 
Treaty  of  1846,  153  ;  Treaty  ot 
1871    (Washington),     Alabama 
Claims,    225  ;    fisheries    treaty, 
275  ;    Canadian     sealing    trou- 
bles, 284,  299  ;  Venezuela  boun- 
dary dispute,  297-299.     See  also 
Alabama    Claims  ;   Canada  ; 
Fisheries  Disputes;    Revo- 
lution 
English,  W.  H.,  257,  258,  356 
Enlistment,  83 
Equality,  230 


Equal  Rights  Party,  278 
Equal  suffrage,  218 
Era  of  Good  Feeling,  98 

Erskine, ,  73 

European  power  in  America,  59, 

99 

Eustis,  William,  364 

Evarts,  William  M.,  369,  370 

Everett,  Edward,  191,  196,  354,  367 

Ewing,  Thomas,  366,  368 

Excise  law,  25,  37 

Executive  power,  68,  124,  125,  140, 
143.  See  also  FEDERAL  POW- 
ERS 

Extradition,  144,  289 

Fairchild,  Charles  S.,  371 

Farewell  Addresses  :  of  George 
Washington,  41  ;  of  Andrew 
Jackson,  132 

Farmers'  Alliance,  282,  283,  285 

Farm  loans,  283 

Fauchet,  Citizen,  37 

Federal  election  laws,  292 

"  Federalists,"  the,  17 

Federal  judiciary,  12,  55,  58,  66, 
222,  284 

Federal  Party,  2,  15-17,  20,  21,  24- 
28,  35-48,  50-58,  60-62,  64--66,  68,  70- 
73.  76-79.  85-87,  89,  90,  103,  114,  171, 
202,  350-352  ;  first  great  defeat, 
52,  53,  56;  its  last  stronghold, 
58  ;  opposes  the  embargo,  70- 
72  ;  opposes  the  war  with  Eng- 
land, 78,  79  ;  becomes  extinct, 
85,  86,  89 

Federal  powers,  8-10,  12  et  seq., 
20,  23-26,  47,  49,  50,  55,  56,  60,  61, 
67,  68,  78,  79,  83,  84,  90,  93-96,  99, 
108,  113-116,  136,  138,  141,  153,  155, 
156,  160,  168,  171-176,  178,  180,  190, 
191,  194,  196,  197,  203,  204,  208,  221, 
222,  224,  228,  229,  234-237,  243,  244, 
253,  254,  256,  271,  287,  294,  295 

Federal  supervision  of  elec- 
tions, 222,  224,  228,  233,  236,  237, 
239,  244,  252-254,  256,  257,  292 

Fessenden.  W.  P.,  369 

Field,  James  G.,  287,  357 

Fifth  Avenue  Hotel  Conference, 
244 

"  Fifty-four-forty  or  fight,"  147. 
152 

Filibustering,  183,  187 

Fillmore,  Millard,  156,  158,  159, 
163, 176-178,  354;  Vice-President, 
158-163  ;  President,  163-166 

Financial  distress,  71,  85,  iii,  124, 


Index.  381 

Financial  distress— contt'tiiied  Freig-ht  rates,  23^,  236,  273 

130.  133.  134'  136,  140,  197,  240,  2go-  Frelinghuvsen,  Frederick  T.,  370 

292.      See    also     COMMERCIAL  Frelinghuysen,     Theodore,    146, 

Distress  ;  Panics  148,  354 

Fiscal  Bank  of  the  United  States,  Fremont,  John  C,  176-178,  201,  205, 

141  354 

Fish,  Hamilton,  369  French  Revolution,  27,  30,32 

Fisheries  dispute,  269,  271,  275  Fugitive  slave  law,    145,   161-165, 

Fisheries  treaty  rejected,  275  204 

Fisk,  Clinton  B.,  278,  356  Fugitive  slaves,  201 

Florida,  60,  65,  90,  91,  135,  239,  244- 

246,  248,  249,  355  ;  purchase,  91  ;  Gage,  Lyman  J.,  372 

admitted,     148,     348 ;    secedes,  Gallatin,  Albert,  364 

193,  199  ;  re-admitted,  221  Garfield,  James  A.,  250,  256,  258- 

Floyd,  John,  iig,  122,  353  260,  356  ;  President,  258-260 


193,  199  ;  re-aamit 
oyd,  John,  iig,  12 
oyd,  John  B.,  368 


Floyd,  John  B.,  368  Garland,  Augustus  H.,  371 

~  Charles  J.,  262,  370  Gary,  James  A.,  372 


Folge 


Foote,  Samuel  A.,  his  resolution,  Geary,  John  White,  175,  178 

113  Genet,  Citizen,  31-33,  36 

Force  bill,  225,  228  Geographical  parties,  177 

Forced  loans,  25  Georgia,  32,  gi,  104,  112,  114,  120, 
Foreign  alliances,  41  130,  131,  218-221,  232,  257,  258,  355; 

Foreign  policy,  278,  296  protests     against    the     tariff. 

Foreign  relations,  279  112  ;    secedes,    193,   199  ;   re-ad- 

Forsyth,  John,  366  mitted,   221,   222,   224 ;    ratified 

Fort  Sill,  242  Constitution,  348 

Fort  Sumter,  195,  198  Gerry,  Elbridge,  76,  80,  352  ;  Vice- 
Forward,  Walter,  367  President,  80-88 

Foster,  Charles,  371  Giddings,  J.  R.,  142,  143 

Foster,  John  W.,  371  Gilmer,  T.  W.,  367 

France,  30-37,  42,  44-46,  48,  50-52,  Gilpin,  Henry  D.,  366 

58-61,  64,   69,   71,   72,  74,   75,  109,  Goff,  Nathan,  Jr.,  370 

152,  183;  war  with  England,  30  Gold,  55,  129,  133,  134,  160,  256,  281, 
et  seq.,    60,    64,   69;   war    with        287,  289,  291,  296,  3^00 

Spain,      33  ;     treaties       with  ;  Gold  reserve,  290,  291,  293,  298 

(1778),    30,   31;    (1803),  61,    152;  Government     loans      on     farm 
claims  against,  log  property,  283 

Francis,  David  R.,  372  Government  ownership  of  trans- 
Franking  privilege,  231  portation  systems,  287,  288 

Free  coinage,  287,  292,  296,  299-301  Graham,  George,  365 

Free  delivery  system,  272  Graham,     William     Alexander, 
Free  Democracy,  354.     See  FREE        165,  166,  354,  368 

Soil  Party  Granger,    Francis,   128,   132,  353, 
Freedmen's  Bureau,   206,  209,  211        367 

Freedom    of    religion,      21 ;    of  Granger,  Gideon,  364,  365 

speech,  21,   48,   49 ;    of  person,  Grangers,  235 

21 ;  of  property,  21 ;  of  press,  Grant,  U.  S..  216,  218-222,  224,  227, 
48,  49  229,  230,  232-237,  239-241,  243,  245, 

Freemasonry,       the        crusade       247,   249,   255,   256,   268,   355,   369; 

against,  no  President,  219-248 

Free  negroes,  96, 163,  201,  207-212,  Great  Britain.    See  England 

229,  235  Great  Debate  in  the  Senate,  114 

Free-Soil  Party,  156,  157,  159,  161-  Great  Lakes,  the,  83 

163,  165,  167,  168,  354  Greeley,  Horace,  230-232,  355;  his 
Free  States,  population,  358  Political  Text  Book,  176 

Free-State  settlers  (Kansas),  173,  Greenback-Labor  Party,  256 

174,  184  Greenback   Party,   242,   252,    253, 
Free  trade,  94,  229  257,  259,  260,  263,  266,  356 


382 


Index, 


Greenbacks,  25,  202,  222,  242,  266, 
290,  2gi.  See  also  CURRENCY; 
Legal  Tender 

Gresham,  Walter  Q.,  371,  372 

Griggs,  John  W.,  372 

Griswold,  Roger,  364 

Groesbeck,  W.  S..  355 

Grow,  Galusha  A.,  200 

(irowth  of  the  nation,  282 

(jrundy,  Felix,  366 

Guiteau,  Charles  J.,  260 

Gunboat  sj-^stem,  65 

Guthrie,  James,  368 

Habeas  corpus.  67,  203,  204,  208, 
213,  226,  228,  22g 

Habersham,  Joseph,  363,  364 

Hale,  John  P.,  165,  354 

Hall,  Nathan  K.,  368 

Hamburgh,  S.  C,  negro  mas- 
sacre at,  244 

Hamilton,  Alexander,  17,  20,  22- 
25,  27,  28,  36,  37,  42,  51,  53,  62,  87; 
settlement  of  the  public  debt, 
22-24  )  Secretary  of  the  Trea- 
sury, 20-25,  27,  28,  363 

Hamilton,  Paul,  365 

Hamlin,  Hannibal,  191,  iq6,  197, 
354;  Vice-President,  196-206 

Hancock,  John,  349 

Hancock,  Winfield  Scott,  257,  258, 
356 

Harbors  and  rivers,  116,  144,  148, 
153-155.  158,  170.  261,  275 

Hard  Cider  Campaign,  138 

Harlan,  James,  369 

Harmon,  Judson,  372 

Harper,  Robert  G.,  352 

Harper's  Ferry,  187,  188 

Harriman,  Job,  358 

Harrisburgh,  Pa.,  National  Con- 
vention of  Protectionists,  106; 
Whig  Convention  (1839),  137 

Harrison,  Benj.,  277,  279-282,  285, 
286,  356,  357  ;  President,  279-289 

Harrison,  R.  H.,  349 

Harrison,  William  H.,  128,  13a, 
137-140,  353 ;  President,  139,  140 

Hartford  Convention,  84,  85,  i6q 

Hatton,  Frank,  371 

Hawaii,  289,  295 

Hay,  John,  372 

Hayes,  Rutherford  B.,  2^3-245, 
248,  249,  251-254,  355  ;  President, 
248-258 

Hayne,  Robert  Y.,  114 

Hayti,  202 

Hazard,  E.,  363 


Helper's  "  Impending  Crisis,  * 
188 

Hendricks,  Thomas  A.,  232,  243, 
245,  248,  266-268,  355,  356 ;  Vice- 
President,  267,  268 

Henry,  John,  350 

Henry  documents,  76,  77 

Henshaw,  David,  367 

Herbert,  Hilary  A.,  372 

Hickman, ,  188 

High  protective  tariff  system,  22 

Hitchcock,  Ethan  A.,  372 

Hoar,  E.  R.,  370 

Hobart,  Garret  A.,  299,  302,  357 

Holland,  30 

Holt,  Joseph,  368,  369 

Home  rule,  256 

Homestead  bill,  186,  189,  191,  202, 
204,  210 

Honduras,  183 

"Honest  money,"  256 

Howard,  John  E.,  352 

Howe,  Timothy  O.,  371 

Hubbard,  S.  D.,  368 

Hunkers,  156 

Hunt,  W.  H.,  371 

Hunter,  R.  M.  T.,  137 

Huntington,  Samuel,  349 

Idaho,  361 ;  admitted,  282,  348 

Illinois,  106,  177,  179,  180,  255  ;  ad- 
mitted, gr,  348;  labor  riots  in, 
295 

Immigration,  189,  284,  287-289,  301 

Impeachments:  W.  W.  Belknap, 
242  ;  Samuel  Chase,  61-63  ; 
Andrew 'Johnson,  212,  216,  217; 
Judge  Peck,  116;  George  Wash- 
ington threatened  with,  39 

"Impending  Crisis"  (Helper's), 
188 

Impressment  of  American  sea- 
men, 34,  38,  67-69,  77,  78,  82,  83 

Income  tax,  204,  288,  293 

Increased  pensions  bill,  269,    281 

Independence,  6,  7 

Independent  Party,  242,  253,  257, 
259,  260,  263,  267,  274,  297 

Independent  Treasury  plan,  126, 
127,  134,  135,  137 

Indiana,  106,  177,  244,  257 ;  ad- 
mitted, 87,  348  ;  the  center  of 
population,  282 

Indianapolis,  nominating  con- 
ventions at,  242,  278,  300 

Indian  Nation,  proposed  estab- 
lishment of  an,  between  the 
United  States  and  Canada,  83 


Index. 


38,5 


Indians,  34,  83,  90,  qi,  104,  114,  116, 
119.  272.  See  also  CHEROKEE 
Nation;  Seminole  War 

Indian  Territory,  282 

Industrial  prosperity,  290 

Inevitable  conflict,  the,  93 

Ingalls,  John  J.,  272 

Ingersoll,  Jared,  76,  80,  352 

Ingham,  Samuel  D.,  366 

Internal  improvements,  2,  14, 
66,  67,  90,  95,  98-100,  104-106,  108, 
109,  III,  113-116,  118,  119,  127,  137, 
138,  144,  148,  153-155,  158,  163,  170, 
171,  176,  191,  196,  261,  275 

Internal  revenue,  9,  37,  55,  57,  86, 
89,  94,  204,  211,  278 

International  copyright,  284 

Internatioiml  Marine  Confer- 
ence, 275 

International  Monetary  Confer- 
ence, 284 

Interstate  commerce,  236,  265, 
27^.   273,  284 

Intimidation  of  voters,  223,  225, 
226,  236,  245,  253 

Iowa,  148,  173 ;  admitted,  153,  348 

Iredell,  James,  350 

Iron-clad  oath,  202 

Italy,  225,  284,  285 

Jackson,  Andrew,  91,  loi,  102,  104, 
106-113,  115-127,  129-13?,  149,  193, 
352,353;  President,  108-132;  ad- 
vocates protection.  108  ;  dis- 
like to  the  tariff  and  internal 
improvements,  m 

Jackson  Men,  104-106 

Jacobinism,  32,  37,  56 

James,  Thomas  L.,  371 

Jay,  John,  17,  21,  33,  35-40,  53,  54, 


reaty,  37-40,  44,  61,  67 


"A 


,  34Q-351 

Jay's  Tr 

Jefferson,  inomas,  21,  25,  27-29, 
32,  35,  42.  43,  52-57,  59,  61-70,  72, 
75,  92,  112.  115,  287,  350,  351,  363  ; 
Vice-President,  43-54 ;  Presi- 
dent, 54-72,  112 

Jenkins,  Charles  J.,  355 

^' John  Brown's Tract,*^"  N.  Y.,  187 

Jewell,  Marshall,  370 

Johnson,  Andrew,  205-217,  355 ; 
Vice-President,  206,  207  ;  Presi- 
dent, 207-219 ;  impeachment, 
212,  216,  217 

Johnson,  Cave,  367 
ohnson.  Hale,  301,  357 
ohnson,   Herschel    v.,   190,   196, 


Johnson,  Reverdy,  368 
Johnson,  Richard  M.,  128,  132,  i3;.w 
is^?,    353;    Vice-President,  13a- 
139 

ohnson,  S.,  351 

ones,  John  W.,  144 

lones,  William,  365 

udiciary  law,  58 

ulian,  George  W.,  165,  354,  355 

ury,  trial  by,  2 

ustice,  miscarriages  of,  264 

Kanawha,  200 

Kansas,  164,  167-169,  171-176,  178, 
182,  184-187,  189,  191,  203,  282,  283  ; 
Pawnee  Constitution,  172 ; 
Topeka  Constitution,  173 ; 
Lecompton  Constitution,  184- 
186 ;  Wyandot  Constitution, 
186,  189,  195  ;  admitted,  195,  348 

Kansas-Nebraska  bill,  167-169, 
176.  See  also  KANSAS ;  Ne- 
braska 

Keifer,  John  W.,  261 

Kellogg,  W.  P.,  233,  236,  237 

Kendall,  Amos,  366 

Kennedy,  J.  P.,  368 

Kentucky,  26,  115,  165,  206;  ad- 
mitted, 26,  348  ;  stays  in  Union, 
199 

Kentucky  Resolutions:  of  1798, 
49,  112,  164  ;  of  1799,  49,  50,  104, 
107,  112 

Kerr,  Michael  C,  241,  247 

Key,  David  M.,  377 

King,  Horatio,  369 

King,  Rufus,  33,  62,  6iy  70,  72,  87, 
351,  352 

King,  William  R.,  164,  166,  354; 
Vice-President,  166-178 

Kirkwood,  S.  J.,  371 

Kitchen  Cabinet,  116,  117 

Knights  of  Labor,  263,  265,  270, 
271,  274,  283 

Know-Nothing  Party,  169,  170, 
175-177,  184,  188,  190.  See  Con- 
stitutional Union  Party 

Knox,  Henry,  21,  363 

Knox,  Philander  C.,  372 

Ku-Klux  Committee,  225 

Ku-Klux  Klan,  223,  225 

Labor,  263,  270,  271,  274,  276,  278, 

280,  285,  286,  288 
Labor,  Commission  of,  271 
Labor  parties,  278,  356 
Labor  riots,  270,  271,  276,  288,  294, 

295 


384 


Index. 


Lamar,  Lucius  Q.  C,  371 

Lament,  Daniel  S.,  372 

Land  grants,  203,  2=;6 

Land-mortgage  scheme,  283 

Lane,  Joseph,  iqo,  iq6,  354 

Langdon,  John,  351 

Lawrence,  Kan.,  173 

Leavenworth,  Kan.,  173 

Lecompton  bill,  the,  188,  189 

Lecompton  Constitution  (Kan- 
sas), 184-186 

Lee,  Charles,  363,  364 

Lee,  Henry,  119,  122,  353 

Legal  tender,  202,  222,  238,  251, 
254,  281,  296 

Legare,  Hugh  S.,  366,  367 

Lemoyne,  Francis,  138 

Leonard,  J.  F.  R.,  358 

"  Leopard  "  affair,  68,  69,  75 

Letters  of  marque.  See  Priva- 
teering 

Levering,  Joshua,  300,  301,  357 

Liberal  Republicans,  228-232,  235, 
j355 

Liberia,  202 

Liberty  Party,  138,  145,  151,  157, 

^  .353.  354 

Lighthouse  system,  116 

Lincoln,  Abraham,  191,  192,  196- 
199,  201,  202,  205-207,  354,  355 ; 
President,  196-208 

Lincoln,  Benjamin,  349 

Lincoln,  Levi,  364 

Lincoln,  Robert  T.,  260,  370 

Livingston,  Edward,  365 

Local  government,  4,  6 

Loco-Foco  Party,  128 

Logan,  John  A.,  265,  356 

Log  Cabin  campaign,  138 

Long,  John  D.,  372 

"  Long  and  short  haul,"  273 

Loose    construction,    2,     13,    14, 
25,   66,   79,   86,   87,   90,   93-95,    98, 
100-104,    109-111,     145,     164,     171, 
172,    176,    191,   198,    199,   203,   205, 
217,  265 
/  Lopez  expedition,  183 
V    Louisiana,  59,  65,  91,  106,  232,  234- 
\       237,  239,  244-246,  248,    249,    355  ; 
admitted.  78,   348  ;  secedes,  193, 
199  ;  re-aamitted,  221 ;  suffrage 
in,  223,  233-237 ;     outrages    in, 
236,  237 

Louisiana  Purchase,  61,  91-93 

Louisville,  Ky.,  nominating  con- 
vention at,  230 

Lovejoy,  Elijah  P.,  131 

Lowell,  James  Russell,  151 


McClellan,  George  B.,  205,   206, 

268,  355 

McClelland,  Robert,  368 

McCrary,  George  W.,  370 

McCulloch,  Hugh,  369 

McEnery,  John,  233,  236,  237,  246 

Machen,  Willis  B.,  355 

McHenry,  James,  363 

McKenna,  Joseph,  372 

McKinley,  William,  280,  281,  299, 
301,  302,  357,  358 ;  the  tariff  bill, 
280,  281,  285;  President,  302 

McLane,  Louis,  123,  366 

McLean,  John,  118,  128,  365,  367 

Macon,  Nathaniel,  57,  61,  64,  352 

McVeagh,  Wayne,  371 

Madison,  James,  u,  14,  17,  22,  35, 
49.  66,  70,  72-82,  112,  351,  352,  364  ; 
President,  72-87 

Maguire,  Matthew,  301,  357 

Maine,  82,  83,  94,  95,  109,  255  ;  ad- 
mitted, 95,  348  ;  boundary  dis- 
pute, 109,  T44 

Malloney,  Jos.  F.,  358 

Mangum,'W.  P.,  132,  353 

Manning,  Daniel,  371 

Manufactures,  encouragement 
and  protection  of,  22,  86,  93-95, 
106,  107,  138,  195,  281.  See  also 
Protection  ;  Tariff 

Marcy,  William  L.,  113,  ^167,  368 

Marshall,  John,  68,  352,  363 

Martin,  David  H.,  358 

Maryland,  42,  62,  66,  92,  177,  187 ; 
and  the  Articles  of  Confedera- 
tion, 10;  and  the  Union,  199; 
ratifies  the  Constitution,  348 

Mason,  John  Y.,  367 

Mason  and  Dixon's  line,  92 

Massachusetts,  19,  21,  71,  72,  78, 
82-84,  87,  94,  128,  165,  175,  5p; 
oppo.ses  the  Constitution,  x6  ; 
opposes  the  Embargo,  71,  72  ; 
threatens  secession,  72 ;  bal- 
lot reform,  276  ;  ratifies  the 
Constitution,  348 

"  Massachusetts  Plan,"  16 

Massacres  of  negroes,  236,  244 

Matchett,  Charles  H,,  301,  357 

Maynard,  Horace,  370 

Maysville  Road  bill,  114,  115 

Meigs,  Return  J.,  365 

Meredith,  W.  M.,  367 

Messages,  Presidential,  at  open- 
ing of  Congress,  57 

Metcalf,  Henry  B.,  358 

Mexico,  91,  92, 131,  148-150, 157, 182  \ 
war  with,  91,  150-155 


Index. 


385 


Michigan,  132 ;  admitted,  130, 
132,  348 

Middle  States,  71,  360,  361 

"  Midnight  Judges,"  58 

Military  government,  214 

Military  leagues,  igg 

Militia,  76,  78,  79,  107,  igg,  213,  244, 
288,  204,  295 

Miller,  W.  H.  H.,  371 

Mills,  Roger  Quarles,  the  tariff 
bill,  275,  279 

Milton,  John,  349 

Milwaukee,  anarchist  troubles 
in,  270 

Minneapolis,  nominating  con- 
vention in,  286 

Minnesota,  179,  180 ;  admitted, 
186,  348 

Mint,  the,  60 

Mississippi,  218,  220,  355 ;  ad- 
mitted, 89.  348  ;  secedes,  193, 
igg  ;  re-admitted,  221 ;  election 
troubles,  239 

Mississippi  River,  59,  66,  93,  114 ; 
floods  in,  262 

Missouri,  60,  92,  94-97,  164,  168,  172, 
1731  i79»  180,  2or,  228,  229 ;  ad- 
mitted, 96,  348 ;  stays  in  the 
Union,  199 

Missouri  Compromise,  60,  94-96, 
148,  154,  155,  160,  166-168,  172,  175, 
176,  179,  181,  206 

Monarchy,  leanings  toward,    15 

Monetary  Conference,  Interna- 
tional, 284 

Monopolies,  266 

Monroe,  James,  44,  59,  60,  66,  70, 
79,  87-89,  95,  97-101,  351,  352,  364  ; 
President,  88-102 

^ronroe  doctrine,  99, 100,  287,  298 

Montana,  361;  admitted,  279,  348 

Montgomery,*  Ala.,  secession 
convention  at,  195 

Morgan,  William,  no 

Mormonism,  261,  286,  293,  294 

Morrill,  Justin  S.,  tariff  of  1861, 
195 

Morrill,  Lot  M.,  369 

Morris,  Thomas,  145,  147 

Morrison,  William  R.,  264,  272 

Morrison  tariff  bill,  264>  272 

Morton,  Julius  S.,  372 

Morton,  Levi  P.,  278-281,  356 ; 
Vice-President,  279-289 

Morton,  Oliver  P.,  238  ;  proposed 
amendment  to  the  constitu- 
tion, 238,  241 ;  electoral  count 
bill,  241 


Mount  Vernon,  Va.,  20 

Mugwumps,  267 

Muhlenberg,   Frederick    A.,    20, 

Napoleon  Bonaparte,  52,  59,  82 
Napoleonic  wars,  64,  69 
National  Anti-Slavery   Society, 

131 
National    Bank.     See     UNITED 

States  Bank 
National  banking  system,  2,  171, 

204,  266,  285 
National    canal   system,  99,   100, 

106,  196 
National   capital,  the,   23,  24,  53. 

See  also  WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 
National  conventions.    See  CON- 

v^ENTiONS,  Nominating 
National  credit,  9,  22,  24,  41,  55 
National  currency,  146,  202.     See 

also     COINAGE;    Currency; 

Greenbacks;  Legal  Tender; 

Silver 
National   debt,    22-24,  55.   59.   94. 

129,  192,  200,  203,  250,  253,  293 
National  defense,  9,  13,  94,  155 
National  Democratic  Party,  300, 

302'  357 
National  Labor  Bureau,  265 
National    Party.     See    GREEN- 
BACK Party 
National  Republican  Party,  103, 

106,  108-110,  114,  118,  125,  128,  353. 

See  also  Whig  Party 
National  roads,  66,  98,    106.     See 

also      Cumberland      Road; 

Maysville  Road 
Naturalization,  57,  84,  i6g,  175,  222 
Navy.      See     UNITED      STATES 

Navy 
Nebraska,   165,   167-173,   176;   ad- 
mitted, 213,  215,  348 
Negroes,  207,  222,  227,  244,  253,  254, 

265,  2S2.    See  also  Abolition; 

Emancipation;    Freedmen's 

Bureau;      Free     Negroes; 

Slavery 
Negro  exodus,  254 
Nelson,  John,  367 
Neutrality  between  France  and 

England,    31-33,    35;    between 

Spain  and  Cuba,  299 
Nevada,  195,  257;  admitted,  348 
New  England,  3,  4,  50,  58,  64,  71, 

72,  76,  77,  81-83,  106,  114,  151,  275, 

360,    361;    the    charters    of,    3, 

4.     See    also    its    component 

States 


386 


Index. 


New  Hampshire.  82,  84;   ratified 

the  Constitution,  348 
New  Hampshire  Grants,  25 
New  Jersey,  48,  106,  136,  137,  177, 
ig2,  206,  218,  244,  257,  277;   rati- 
fied the  Constitution,  348 
"  New  Jersey  Plan,"  the,  n 
New  Mexico,  155,  157,  158,  161 
New  Orleans,  59,  60,  65,  107,  183, 

234;  riots,  284' 
New  York  (city),  169,  204;  meet- 
ing of  Congress  of  1789  at,  17, 
19;  panic  of  1837,  134;   custom- 
house   violations   of  law,    270; 
anarchistic    troubles,    270  ;    fi- 
nancial   distress  at    the   Sub- 
Treasury,  296;  election  frauds, 
218;    nominating    conventions 
at,  218,  301 
New  York  (State),  17,  25,  48,  52, 
70,  76,  106,  110,  119,  131,  134,  147, 
156,  218,  244,  255,  260,  262,  267,  277, 
279,  285,  349;    rejects  proposed 
tariff    legislation,    9;    opposes 
the      Constitution,     16;     Anti- 
Masonry  crusade,  no;  ratified 
constitution,  348 
"New  York  Herald,"  176 
"  New  York  Tribune, "176,  230,  251 
"New  York  World,"  176 
Nicaragua  ship  canal,  296,  302 
Nicholson,  Samuel  T.,  358 
Niles,  John  M.,  366 
Noble,  John  W.,  372 
Non-Intercourse  Act,  72-74 
North,  Lord,  5 

North,  the  sectional  line,  92,  93 
North  Carolina,  16,  17,  22,  23,  40, 
120,   193,  349,  355;    secedes,   199; 
re-admitted,  221;  ratifies  Con- 
stitution, 348 
North    Dakota,    361;    admitted, 

27q»  348 
Northeast     boundary     dispute, 

109,  144 
Northwest  Section,  360,  361 
Northwest  Territory,  34,  60 
Nueces  River,  149,  150 
Nullification,       the       Kentucky 
scheme  of,  50.  107,  109,  112,  114, 
115,  120,  193;  tne  New  England 
idea,    50;     in    South    Carolina, 
so;      Jackson's     proclamation 
against,  120,  193 

Oath,  the  iron-clad,  202 
Obstruction,  105 
O'Conor,  Charles,  230,  355 


Oflfice,  tenure  of,  57,  58,  84,  112, 
113,  127,  140,  149,  202,  214-217,  226, 
227,  268,  272 

Ohio,  66,  106,  128,  143,  229;  admit- 
ted, 60,  348 

Ohio  River,  93 

Oklahoma  Territory,  282 

Olney,  Richard,  372 

Omaha,  Neb.,  nominating  con- 
vention in,  287 

Omnibus  bill,  the,  162 

Orders  in  Council,  69,  74,  77,  78, 
82 

Ordinances:  of  1787,  60,  92,  152, 
206;  of  Nullification,  120;  of  Se- 
cession, 192,  193,  221 

Oregon,  146,  147,'  152-155,  218,  245, 
246,  248;  admitted,  187,  348 

Orleans,  island  of,  60 

Orr,  James  L.,  184 

Osgood,  Samuel,  363 

Ossawattomie,  Kan.,  174,  187 

Ostend  Manifesto,  183 

Pacific  coast,  154,  155 

Pacific  railways,  176,  177,  190, 
191,  201,  231 

Pacific  States,  360,  361 

Pacific  telegraph,  201 

Palmer,  John  M.,  300,  355,  357 

Palo  Alto,  battle  of,  150 

Pan-American  Congress,  275. 
See  also  Congress  of 
American  Republics 

Panama,  Congress  of  American 
Republics  at,  105 

Panics  :  of  1837,  130,  133-13.'; ;  of 
1893,  290-292 

Paper  blockades,  69,  77 

Paper  currency,  129,  133,  202,  222, 
256,  296 

Parsons.  Theophilus,  364 

Party  Names :  Abolitionist,  131  ; 
American,  278;  American 
(Know-Nothing),  169  ;  Ameri- 
can Alliance,  266  ;  American 
Whig,  5,  6  ;  Anti-Federalist,  15, 
20;  Anti-Lecompton  Demo- 
crats, 186  ;  Anti-Masonic,  109, 
no;  Anti-Nebraska,  i6g  ; 
Barnburners,  156 ;  Border 
States  Men,  204  ;  Conservative, 
135,  239 ;  Constitutional  Union, 
191  ;  Copperheads,  205  ;  Dem- 
ocratic ("Jackson  Men"), 
104  ;  Democratic-Republican, 
I,  2,  27  ;  Equal  Rights,  278 ; 
Farmers'  Alliance,  282  ;  Feder- 


Index. 


387 


Party  '^a.mes—confi'nued 
alist,  2,  15 ;  Free  Democracy, 
157;  Free-Soil,  156;  Greenback 
242,  25^;  Greenback-Labor, 
256  ;  Hunker,  156  ;  Independent, 
or  Greenback,  242  ;  Independ- 
ent, or  Mugwump,  267  ;  Jack- 
son Men,  104  ;  Know-Nothing, 
i6q  ;  Liberal  Republican,  228  ; 
Liberty,  138 ;  Loco-foco,  128; 
Mugwump,  267  ;  National,  242, 
252  ;  National  Democratic, 
300;  National  Prohibition,  357  ; 
National  Republican,  103; 
Native  American,  i6g ;  Peace 
Democrats,  igq  ;  People's,  267  ; 
Prohibition.  266;  Quids,  65; 
Radical  Men,  205  ;  Read- 
justers,  263;  Republican,  27, 
171  ;  Republican  (Democratic- 
Republican),  27,  104  ;  Sound- 
Money  Democrats,  3oo;Straight- 
Out,  230 ;  Temperance,  355 ; 
Union,  iq8,  200 ;  United  Labor, 
278;  Whig.  2,  5,  103,  128; 
Woman   Suffrage,  266 

Party  organization,  26 

Party  platforms,  176,  205,  218, 
229,  230,  242,  243,  255,  256,  265,  266, 
277,  278,  287,  288,  2Qg-30i 

Patronage,  278.  286 

Patrons  of  Husbandry,  235 

Patterson,    William,    n 

Paulding,  James  K.,  366 

Pawnee  Constitution  (Kansas), 
172.    See  also  Kansas 

Peace  Congress  of  1861,  194 

Peace  Democrats,  igg,  205 

Peace  Party,  79 

Peck,  Judge,  impeachment  of, 
116 

Peculation  of  national  funds, 
197 

Pendleton,  George  H.,  205,  206, 
262,  355 

Pendleton  civil  service  bill, 
262,  268 

Pennington,  William,  188 

Pennsylvania,  20,  48,  92,  106,  126, 
128,  177,  255,  277 ;  ratified  the 
Constitution,  348 

Pensions,  253,  269,  272,  281,  285, 
296.  See  also  Dependent 
Parents,  etc.;  Dependent 
pensions 

People's  Party,  267,  268,  283,  287, 
288,  290,  291,  297,  300,  302,  357 

Person,  freedom  of,  4,  21 


Personal  politics,  98,  100.  266,  267 

Personal  liberty  laws,  162,  163 

Pet  banks,  124,  133 

Philadelphia,  22,  24,  32,  169,  263  ; 
Convention  of  1787,  10;  nomi- 
nating conventions  in,  156,  175, 
176,230;  Centennial  Exhibition, 
241 ;  Centenary  of  the  Consti- 
tution, 274 

Pickering,  Timothy,  363 

Pierce,  Franklin,  164,  166,  170,  171, 
174,  354  ;  President,  166-178 

Pierrepont,  Edwards,  370 

Pinckney,  Charles  C,  44,  52,  53, 
62,  63,  70,  72,  351 

Pinckney,  Thomas,  42,  43,  350 

Pinckney,  William,  365 

Pirates,  34 

Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  nominating 
conventions  at,  165,  300;  labor 
riots  at,  288 

Piatt,  Thomas  C,  260 

Platte  Country,  the,  164, 165.  See 
also  Kansas 

Pocket  veto,  115,  118,  122,  148,  154 

Poinsett,  Joel  R.,  366 

Poland,  Luke  P.,  231 

Poland  Committee,  231 

Political  contributions,  286 

Political  corruption,  239 

Political  disabilities,  223,  226-228 

Political  outrages,  223,  226,  230, 
236,  237 

Political  parties,  origin  of,  3 

Polk,  James  K.,  129,  134,  139, 
146-151,  153,  154,  183,  353.  3.S4; 
President,  148-158 

Polygamy,  176,  261,  272,  286,  294 

Pooling  of  railroad  freights,  273 

"  Pools,"  263 

Popular  .sovereignty.  4-6,  160, 
181,   190.    See  also    Squatter 

SOVEREIGN!  Y 

Popular  votes  (Presidential), 
109,  123,  133,  139,  140,  149,  159,  165, 
167,  177,  192,  197,  207,  220,  234,  249, 
2571  259  ;  (Presidential  and  Vice 
Presidential),  332-357 

Population,  282,  358-361 

Populist,  283.  See  also  PEOPLE'S 
Party 

Porter,  Admiral  David  D.,  286 

Porter.  James  M.,  367 

Porter,  Peter  B.,  365 

Porto  Rico,  362 

Portugal,  34 

Posse  comitatus,  251 

Postal  savings  banks,  288 


388 


Index. 


Post  office,  5,   113,   127,   132,   272, 

279,  2g5 

Post  roads,  13,  98,  106,  116 

Potomac  River,  24 

Potter,  Clarkson  N.,  251 

Potter  Committee.  251 

Presidential  elections,  dangers 
of,  238 

Presidential  elections :  (1789) 
17.  19.  349  ;  (1792)  28,  29.  350  ; 
(1796)  41-43,  350,  351  ;  (1800)  18, 
52-55,  351  ;  (1804)  62,  63,  351  ; 
(1808)70-72,351  ;  (1812)  78-80,  3';2; 
(1816)  87,  88.  352  ;  (1820)  95-97,  352; 
(1824)  101,  102.  352,  353  ;  (1828) 
104,  107-109.353;  (1832)  118,  119, 
122,  123,  353  ;  (1836)  128,  130,  132, 
133.  353  ;  (^840)  137-140,  353  ; 
(1844)  146-149,  354  ;  (1848)  156-159, 
354  ;  (1852)  164-167,  354  ;  (1856) 
175-179,  354  ;  (i860)  189,   192,     196, 

197,354  ;  (1864)205-207,355;  (1868) 

218-220,  355  ;  (1872)  229-233,  355  ; 
(»£z^  238^  244-249,_355,  356  ;  (t88o) 
255-259,  35<J  ,  (i«H4l  iil>5-568,  356  ; 
(1888)  277-280,  356  ; (1892) 286-290, 
357;  (189^1)  299-302,  357;  (1900) 
358;  See  Disputed  Elections; 
Ei-EcroKAL  Counts;  elec- 
toral Votes;  PopularVotes 

Presidential  salary,  232,  241 

Presidential  succession,  263,  264, 
269,  371 

Preston,  William  B.,  368 

Private  claims,  272 

Privateering,  31,  32,  47,  50,  51,  225 

Private  pension  bills,  269,  272 

Proctor,  Redfield,  371 

Prohibition   Party,    266-268,   278- 

280,  288,   2QO,  300-302.   356,   357 

Property,  rreedom  of,  21 

Prosperity,  261,  262,  290 

Protection,  2,  22,  86,  89,  93-95,  99- 
loi,  103,  106-109,  III,  112,  118, 
119,  138,  146,  153,  171,  191,  195, 
229,     256,    264-266,   272,  278,    280, 

281,  287,  288,  299.  See  also 
Tariff 

Protectionists,  National  Conven- 
tion of,  106 

Provisional  governments,  208,  214 

Public  debt,  Hamilton's  settle- 
ment of,  22-24  i  deplorable 
condition  of,  8,  9.  See  also 
National  Debt 

Public  improvements.  See  In- 
ternal Improvements;  Riv^- 
ERS  and  Harbors 


Public  lands,  114,  122,  129,  130, 
135,  142, 177,  186, 187,  189,  201,  203, 
209-211,  254.  272 

Public  moneys,  123-127,  133,  241 

Public  schools,  241.  See  also 
Education 

Publius,  17 

Pullman  Company  strike,  295 

Quids,  65,  66,  70,  79 

Radical  Men,  205 

Railroads,  176,  177,   235,   250,   256, 

273,  287,  288,  294,  295.    See  also 
Pacific  Railroads 

Railroad  strikes,  250,  276,  288, 
294,  295 

Railway  mail  service,  279 

Ramsey,  Alexander,  370 

Randall,  Alexander  W.,369 

Randall,  Samuel  J..  247,  250,  253, 
264 

Randolph,  Edmund,  ir,  21,  25,  363 

Randoph,  John,  65,  79.  95 

Rates  of  representation,  11,  12, 
182,  261,  283,  360,  361 

Ratio  of  gold  to  silver,  287 

Rawlins,  John  A.,  370 

Readjusters,  263 

Re-admission  of  seceding  States, 
207  et  seq. 

Reciprocity,  281,  285,  287,  288,  293, 
299 

Reconstruction,  207  et  seq.,  223, 
232  ;  completed,  221,  222,  292 

Redemption  of  national-bank 
notes,  285 

Reed,  Thomas  Brackett,  281,  297 

Reid,  Whitelaw,  286,  357 

Remmel,  Valentine,  358 

Removal  from  office,  113,  124,  214, 
215.  See  also  Office,  Tenure 
OF ;   Spoils  System 

Representation,  principles  of, 
II,  12,  182,  261,  283,  360,  ^61 

Republican  Party  of  1791,  27,  28, 
31'  33,  35-40,  42-46,  48,  51-66,  68-76, 
78,  79,  81,  83,  86,  87,  89,  90,  95-98, 
104,  III,  350-353.  See  also  Dem- 
ocratic-Republican Party 

Republican  Party  of  1856,  171, 
176,  177,  179,  184,  185.  188,  189,  191, 
192,  194,  195,  197,  198,  200,  203-209, 
211,  212.  215,  217,  218,  220,  223-225, 
227-231,  233-236,  239-250.  252-255, 
257,  259-261,  263,  265-268,  270,  272, 

274,  277-280,  285,  286.  290,  291,  297, 
299,  301,  302  ;    origin,   171  ;    first 


Index. 


389 


Republican  Party  of  1856 — cont. 
great  success,  192  ;  manages 
the  war  against  the  South, 
148  et  seq.;  quarrels  with  Pres. 
Johnson,  211,  212 ;  accom- 
plishes Reconstruction  by 
Congress,  214 ;  opposes  reduc- 
tion of  protective  duties,  278 

Repudiation,  36 

Resumption  of  specie  payments, 
237,  238,  242,  243,  252 

Retaliation,  35,  66,  272,  276 

Returning-bbards,  232,  233,  236, 
245,  246,  24Q-232 

Revenue,  collection  of,  24,  28,  40, 
127,  143,  262,  263,  288,  28g,  2q6 ; 
division  of  surplus,  106,  113, 
i2g,  135,  142,  143,  146 

Revenue  bonds  extended,  135 

Revolution,  3-6,  8,  27,  38 

Rhode  Island,  10,  16,  17,  24,  82,  84, 
340  ;   ratified   Constitution,  348 

Richardson,  William  A.,  369 

Richmond,  Va.,  nominating 
convention  at,  190 

Riders,  158,  171,  213,  228,  253.  254 

Right  of  search,  34,  38,  67-69,  77, 
78,  82 

Rights  of  citizenship,  225,  226, 
243,  256 

Rio  Grande,  150,  151,  154 

Rivers  and  harbors,  116,  144,  148, 
153-1551  158.  170,  261,  275 

Roads,  67,  116 

Robeson,  George  M.,  370 

Robespierre,  Maximilien,  37 

Rocky  Mountains,  145,  164 

Rodney,  Caesar  A.,  364,  365 

Rodney,  Daniel,  352 

Rogers,  John,  365 

Roman  Catholics,  297 

Roosevelt,  Theodore,  358 

Root,  Elihu,  372 

Ross,  James,  352 

Rotation  in  office,  113,  149,  226 

Rush,  Richard,  108,  352,  353,  365 

Rusk,  Jere.  M.,  372 

Russia,  81,  289 

Rutledge,  John,  349 

Sabine  River,  91,  145 
St.  John,  John  P.,  266,  356 
St.  Louis,    nominating  conven- 
tions at,  243,  265,  277,  299,  300 
Salary  grab,  232,  235 
San  Domingo,  224,  234 
Sanford,  Nathan,  352 
Savings  banks,  288 


Schofield,  John  M.,  369 

Schurz,  Carl,  228,  370 

Scott,  Winfield,  164-166,  354,  368 

Sealing  difficulties,  284 

Secession,  threatened  and 
actual,  112,  119,  120,  144,  162, 
182,  191-195,  197-199,  207,  218, 
221 

Secretaries  of  Departments,  363- 
372 

Sectarian  schools,  241 

Sectional  parties,  177,  243 

Sectional  votes,  42,  92-97,  100,  106- 
108,  154,  155.  157,  165 

Sedgwick,  Theodore,  52 

Sedition  and  alien  laws,  47-50, 
56, 62,  106,  225 

Seigniorage,  293 

Seminole  war,  90,  gi,  116,  135 

Sergeant,  John,  118,  122,  353 

Sewall,  Arthur,  300,  357 

Seward,  William  H.,  171,  369 

Seymour,  Horatio,  218,  219,  355 

Shannon,  Gov.,  174 

Sherman,  John,  256,  269,  272,  281, 
370,  372 

Sherman,  Gen.  W.  T.,  286,  370 

Sherman  law,  281,  291-293 

Shipping,  256,  266,  285 

Sill,  Fort,  242 

Silver,  55,  130,  133,  134,  256,  281,  283, 
287,  290-293;  coinage,  250,  251, 
253,  261,  267,  272,  283,  287,  292-294, 
296,  299-301;  demonetization  of, 
250;    price,  291 

Silver  notes,  291 

"  Sixteen  to  one,"  287 

Slaughter-house  cases,  234 

Slave  power,  182 

Slavery,  2,  18,  33,  92,  96,  114,  131, 
132,  138,  142-145.  147,  148,  151.  152, 
155-169,  171-188,  190-195,  198,  200- 
205;  in  the  Territories,  2,  60,  92- 
95,  143,  147,  148,  152-158,  160-162, 
164,  166-168,  171-176,  178-181,  184- 
186,  188-191,  194,  211,  212 

Slaves,  as  a  basis  of  representa- 
tation,  II,  12,  182 

Slave  States,  population,  358 

Slave  trade,  12,  144,  161,  182,  184 

Smith,  Caleb  P.,  369 

Smith,  Charles  Emory,  372 

Smith,  Green  C,  356 

Smith,  Hoke,  372 

Smith,  Robert,  364 

Smith,  V.  v.,  239 

Smith,  William,  of  Alabama,  132, 
353 


390 


Index. 


Smith,  William,  of  South  Caro- 
lina, io8 

Socialism,  274 

Socialist  Labor  Party,  301,  302,  357 

*'  Solid  South,"  the,  256 

Sound-Money  Democrats,  300 

South,  the  sectional  line  of 
slavery,  92,  93;  the  section  of 
the,  360,  361 

South  American  republics,  90, 
99,  266,  275 

Southard,  Samuel  L.,  365 

South  Carolina,  50,  52,  54,  ioq-112, 
118-121,  175,  192.  239,  244,  248,  249, 
355;  protests  against  the  ta- 
riff, 112;  secedes,  192,  199;  re-ad- 
mitted, 221;  suffrage  in,  223, 
226;  ratifies  the  Constitution, 
348.     See  also  NULLIFICATION 

South  Dakota,  admitted,  279,  348 

Southgate,  J.  H.,  301,  357 

Spain,  33,  59,  65,  66,  90-92.  99,  183, 
301;  war  with  France,  33  ; 
treaty  with  (1819),  91,  152 

Speakers:  Banks,  N.  P.,  Jr.,  170, 
Barbour,  P.  P.,  98;  Blaine, 
James  G.,  220,  225,  231,  235; 
Boyd,  Linn,  163,  167;  Carlisle, 
John  G.,  263,  269,  274;  Clay, 
Henry,  75,  81,  86,  89,  93,  95,  99, 
100;  Cobb,  Howell,  161;  Colfax, 
Schuyler,  204.  209,  215;  Crisp, 
Charles  F.,  285,  292;  Davis,  John 
W.,     150;    Dayton,     Jonathan, 


39,  45;  Grow,  Galusha  A.,  200; 
Hunter,  R.  M.  T.,  136  ;  Jones, 
John     W.,    144;    Keifer,    John 


Warren,  261;  Kerr,  Michael  C. 
241;  Macon,  Nathaniel,  57,  61, 
64;  Muhlenberg,  Frederick  A., 
20,  33;  Orr,  James  L.,  184;  Pen- 
nington, William.  188;  Polk, 
James  K.,  129,  134;  Randall, 
Samuel  J.,  247,  250,  253;  Reed, 
Thomas  Brackett.  281,  297; 
Sedgwick,  Theodore,  52;  Ste- 
venson, Andrew,  107,  113,  117; 
Taylor,  John  W.,  95,  104;  Trum- 
bull, Jonathan,  25;  Varnum, 
Joseph  B.,  69.  73;  White,  John, 
140;  Winthrop,  Robert  C,  154 
Special  bond  issues,  290 
Specie  circular,  129,  133,  135 
Specie  payments,    129,    130,    134, 

13s.  237,  238,  242,  243,  252,  290 
Speculation,  133 
Speech,  freedom  of,  21 
Speed,  James,  369 


Spencer.  John  C,  367 

Spoils  system,  56,  57,  58,  89,  112, 

113,  140,  149,  226,  244,  260,  268,  273, 
276,  278 

Squatter    sovereignty,   160,    161, 

166,  176,  190 
Stanbery,  Henry,  369 
Stanton,  Edwin  M.,  216,  217,  369 
State  bank  system,  126,  127,  129, 

130,  133,  134,  204 
State  debts,  22,  23 
State  government,  6  et  seq. 
State  rights  and  sovereignty,  6- 

10,  12,  13,  36,  42.  49.  55'  104,  112, 

114,  125,  180-183,  208-210,  218,  235, 
265 

States,  jealousy  between,  6  et 
seq. 

States-Rights  Democracy,  125 

"Stepfather  of  his  Country, 
the."  39 

Stephens,  Alexander  H.,  195 

Stevenson,  Adlai  E.,  287,  289,  290, 
357i  358;  Vice-President,  289-302 

Stevenson,  Andrew,  107,  113,  117, 
125,  126 

Stewart,  A.  T.,  220 

Stewart,  R.  T.,  356 

Stock- jobbing,  288 

Stockton,  Richard,  352 

Stoddert,  Benjamin,  364 

Straight-Outs,  230 

Streeter,  A.  J.,  356 

Strict  Construction,  i,  2,  13,  14, 
16,  25,  49,  58,  75,  79,  83,  87,  90,  93, 
94,  98,  99,  101-104,  106,  III,  136- 
138,  142,  146,  153,  156,  160,  164,  172, 
176,  190,  199,  205,  208,  217,  256 

Strike  Commission,  295 

Strikes,  250,  270,  274,  276,  288,  294, 
295.  See  also  Black-List; 
Boycott;  Capital  and  La- 
bor;  Labor;   Railroads 

Stuart,  A.  H.  H.,  368 

Sub-Treasury   system,    126,    127, 

134.  137.  141.  150,  283,  296 
Suffrage,     218,   219,    222,    223-226. 

See  also  WOMAN   SUFFRAGE 
Sugar,  275 

Sumner,  Charles,  175,  227,  238 
Sumter,  Fort,  195,  198 
"  Sunday-school  politics,"  252 
Supplementary  Civil  Rights  bill, 

227,  238 
Surplus    revenue,   106,    113,   129, 

135,  142,  143,  146,  262,  265,  271,  274, 
^  275,  277 

Switzerland,  225 


Index. 


391 


Taft,  Alphonso,  370 

Taney,  Roger  B.,  124,  126.  366 

Tariff  :  proposal  of  amendment 
to  Articles  of  Confederation 
defeated,  g;  act  of  July  4,  1789, 
21,  22;  proposed  prohibitory 
duties  on  English  goods,  .:(5 ; 
debates  on,  40;  for  revenue 
only,  106,  143,  150,  153.  256,  287; 
reduction  of  tariff  duties,  55, 
57,  177;  increase  of  tariff  du- 
ties, 26,  86;  compromise  on,  89, 
90;  tariff  of  1816,  90,  177;  Clay 
favors  protection,  90;  defeat 
of  a  protective  tariff  (1820),  93; 
views  of  the  two  parties  on, 
93,  94;  increase  of  tariff  du- 
ties defeated  (1822),  gg;  (1826), 
105;  tariff  of  1824,  100;  tariff 
of  1828,  107,  112,  119,  120;  Jack- 
son's dislike  to,  hi;  protest  of 
Georgia  and  South  Carolina 
against,  112;  tariff  of  1832,  118 
-121;  Whig  platform  of  1832 
on,  iig;  discontent  in  South 
Carolina  with,  118-121;  de- 
clared null  and  void  by  South 
Carolina,  120;  bill  for  enforc- 
ing, 121;  compromise  tariff 
of  1833,  121,  143;  tariff  bill 
vetoed,  143;  tariff  of  1842, 
144,  146;  revenue  tariff  rec- 
ommended by  Polk,  150;  tariff 
of  1846,  153;  favored  by  the 
Republican  Party,  171;  tariff 
of  1857,  177;  favored  by  Re- 
publican platforms,  igi,  256; 
Morrill  tariff  of  1861,  igs;  du- 
ties increased,  200,  202;  rev- 
enue tariff  favored  by  Demo- 
cratic platform,  256;  reduction 
of,  261,  262,  266;  report  of  the 
Tariff  Commission  of  1883, 
262 ;  messages  by  Cleveland 
on,  269,  271,  274,  27g;  failure  of 
Democrats  to  reduce,  270; 
Morrison's  horizontal  reduc- 
tion bill  defeated,  264,  272; 
Mills  bill,  275;  Democratic 
platform  on,  277;  Republican 
platform  on,  278;  Senate  sub- 
stitute bill,  279;  McKinley  bill, 
280,  281,  285;  for  defense 
against  other  tariffs,  288;  Wil- 
son bill,  2g2,  293 

Taxation,  by  local  vote,  4;  the 
first  idea  of,  7;  indirect,  36; 
direct,  36,  55.  288;  internal,  37, 


Taxation— continued 
89;  reduction   of,  55,  57,  86,  89, 
262,  274,  278;  insufficient,  293 

Taxes,  collection  of,  24 

Taylor,  John  W.,  95,  104 

Taylor,  Zachary,  149,  150,  156,  158, 
159,  163,  354;  President,  158-163. 

Tazewell,  L.  W.,  139,  353 

Telegraphs,  287,  288 

Telephones,  287 

Telfair,  Edward,  349 

Teller,  Henry  M.,  371 

Temperance,  277.  See  also  PRO- 
HIBITION 

Temperance  Party,  355 

Tennessee,  104,  130,  165,  193,  223, 
355;  admitted,  40,  348;  secedes, 
199;  re-admitted,  221 

Tenure  of  office,  57,  58,  84,  112, 
113,  127,  140,  149,  202,  214-217,  226, 
227,  268,  272 

Territories,  slavery  in,  2,  60,  92- 

Texas,  91,  130, 131,  135,  144-150.  152. 
154,  161,  182,  208,  218,  220,  224,  35s; 


aamittea,     15c 
193,  199;  re-adr 


[93,  199;  re-aamitted,  221 
Texas  versus  White,  221 
Third  term,  40,  243 
Thomas,  Lorenzo,  216 
Thomas,  Philip  F.,  368 
Thompson,  Jacob,  368 
Thompson,  Richard  W.,  370 
Thompson,  Smith,  365 
Thurman,  Allen  G.,  277,  356 
"Tidal  wave,  the,"  240 
Tilden,  Samuel  J.,  243,  245,   24J3, 
^251,  355 
Tobacco,  275 
Tompkins,   Daniel   D.,   87-89,  95, 

97,  98,  352;  Vice-President,  88- 

102 
Topeka,  Kan.,  173,  174,  178 
Topeka   Constitution    (Kansas), 

_i73,  174 

Tory,  5,  6 

Toucey,  Isaac,  368 

Town  system  of  government,  3, 

4 

Tracy,  Benjamin  F.,  371 

Trade  dollar,  272 

Trade  unions,  263 

Transportation,  235,  236.  See  also 
Canals;  Interstate  Com- 
merce; National  Roads; 
Railroads;  Shipping 

Treason,  201,  208 

Treasury  notes,  196,  281 


392 


Index. 


Treaties:  with  England,  (1783). 
9,  34;  (1842— Webster-Ashbur- 
ton),  144;  (1846),  153;  (1871, 
Washington),  225;  with  France, 
(1778),  30,  31;  (1803),  6i,  152;  with 
Spain,  (1819),  91,  152;  with 
Texas,  (1844),  145 

Treaty-making  power,  7-9,  40 

Trial  by  jury,  4 

Trobriand,  Gen.  de,  237 

Trumbull,  Jonathan,  '25 

Trusts,  263 

Turkey,  outrages  in,  298 

Twenty-second  Joint  Rule,  the, 
238,  241 

Tyler,  John,  121,  128,  132,  138-144, 
146,  148,  205,  353;  Vice-Presi- 
dent, 139,  140;  President,  140-148 

Tyner,  James  M.,  370 

Union,  weakness  of  and  threats 
to  dissolve  the,  8,  84,  96 

Union  Labor  Party,  278,  356 

Union  Pacific  Railroad  Co.,  231 

Union  Party,  198,  200,  205 

United  Labor  Party,  278 

United  States,  original  form  of 
government,  i;  growth  of  the 
country,  17 

United  States  army,  9,  26,  46,  51, 
55.  57.  76,  83,  90,  171,  174,  197,  200, 
201,  211,  213,  222,  226,  236,  237,  244, 
249-254.  257,  294,  295 

United  States  Bank,  24,  25,  74,  75, 

87,  90,    109,     HI,    113,    116,    117,    IIQ, 

121-126,  129,  137,  138,  141,  142,  202 
United  States  bonds,  290,  291 
United  States  Congress,  11;  the 

first  idea  of,  7  et  seq.;   powers 

of,  13,    14,   24,   31,  99,    112,    II4-I16, 

123,  141,  156,  157, 160,  168,  172,  175, 
176,  180,  190,  191,  T93,  194,  196, 
208,  221  (see  also  Federal 
Powers);  the  Constitution 
submitted  to,  16;  bribery  in, 
i83,  189;  Congresses,  their  acts 
and  party  elements;  I,  19-25; 
II.  25-33;  in.  33-39;  IV,  39-44; 
V,  45-52;  VI,  48,  52-57;  VII,  57- 
61;  VIII,  61-63;  IX,  64-69;  X,69- 
72;  XI,  73-75;  XII,  75-80;  XIII, 
81-86;  XIV,  86-88;  XV,  89-93; 
XVI.  93-97;  XVII,  98,  99; 
XVIII,  99-102;  XIX,  104-106; 
XX,io6-io8;  XXI,  113-117;  XXII, 
117-122;  XXIII,  125-128;  XXIV. 
128-132;    XXV,   134-136;  XXVI, 

136-139;  xxvii,i4c^i44;xxviii, 


United  States  Congress— ctJw/. 
144-148;  XXIX,  150-154;  XXX, 
154-158;  XXXI,  161-163;  XXXII, 
163-166;  XXXIII,  ■  167-170; 
XXXIV,  170-178;  XXXV.  184- 
187;  XXXVI,  188-196;  XXXVII, 
199-204;  XXXVIII,  204-206; 
aXXIX,  209-215;  XL,  215-219; 
XLIv  220-225;  XLII,  225-233; 
XLIII,  235-240;  XLlV,  240-248; 
XLV,  250-253;  XLVI,  253-258; 
XLVII,  259-263;  XLVIII,  263- 
267;  XLIX,  268-274;  L,  274-279; 
LI,  280-285;  LII,  285-289;  LIII, 
291-297;  LIV,  297-302 

United  States  Constitution,  n, 
12,  16,  20,  22,  24,  41,  195,  202,  205, 
207,  213;  interpretation  and 
limitations  of,  i,  2,  13,  14,  16,  17, 
20,  49,  50,  58,  93,  94,  99,  108,  153, 
160,  168,  172.  180,  181,  201,  203,  234- 
236  (see  also  Federal  Pow- 
ers; Loose  Construction; 
Strict  Construction);  the 
preamble,  13;  signing  the,  14; 
a  compromise,  14;  adoption, 
16,  17;  straining  the,  199,  205; 
Centenary  of,  274;  text  of,  319 
-347;  Amendments:  I,  17,  21,  48, 
340;  II,  17,  21,  340;  III,  17,  21, 
340;  IV,  17,  21,  341;  V,  17,  21, 
341;  VI,  17,  21,  341;  VII,  17,  21 
342;  VIII,  17,  21,  342;  IX,  17,  21, 
342;  X,  17,  21,  342;  XI,  17,  36, 
343;  XII,  61,  343;  XIII,  18,  60, 
204,   206,   229,  345;  XIV,   18,  210, 

214,   220,   221,   223,  225-227,   229,   234, 

235,  345;  XV,  18,  219-222,  224,  229, 
234.  235,  347 

United  States  courts,  12,  55,  58, 
120,  155,  179-181,  191,  210,  213,  221, 
222,  224,  225,  234,  247,  255.  284. 
See  also  Federal  Judiciary 

United  States  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, Presidential  elec- 
tions by,  53,  54,  loi,  102;  rules 
of,  280,  297.  For  political  com- 
plexion, etc.,  of,  see  United 
States  Congress 

United  States  mails,  295.  See 
also  Post  Office;  Post 
Roads 

United  States  mint,  292.  See  also 
Coinage;  Gold;  Silver 

United  States  navy,  9,  35,  46,  51, 
55,  57,  64,  65,  76,  79,  83,  85.  90,  120, 
197,  200,  226,  269,  282,  283,  285, 
286,  296,  298,  364 


Index. 


393 


United  States  Senate,  the  Great 
Debate  in  the,  114;  the  assault 
on  Sumner,  175.  For  political 
complexion,  etc..  see  UNITED 
States  Congress 

Unit  rule,  the,  255 

Upshur,  A.  P.,  366,  367 

Usher,  John  P.,  369 

Utah,  i6r,  286,  361;  admitted,  zqq. 
See  also  Anti-Polygamy 
Bill;  Mormonism;  Poly- 
gamy 


Valparaiso,  Chili,  riot  in,  285 
Van  Buren,   Martin,    116-119,  122, 
123,  127-129,  132-134.    137-139.  142, 
145.  146.    157.  353.  354.  365  ;  Vice- 
President,    122-132  ;    President, 

I3-2-139 

Varnum,  Joseph  B.,  69,  73 

Venezuelan  boundary  dispute, 
297-299 

Vermont,  25,  64,  84,  119,  165 ; 
admitted,  25,  348 

Vetoes  and  veto  power,  98,  115, 
117,  118,  140,  141.  143-145.  148.  153. 
154,  170,  187,  189,  209-215,  235,  241, 
251,    254,    261,   269,   272,   278,  302 

Vice-President,  method  of  elect- 
ing, 19 

Vilas,  William  F.,  371 

Virginia,  10,  n,  17,  19,  26,  28,  49,  50, 
67,  70,  87,  120,  187,  194,  218,  220, 
355  ;  condemns  the  articles  of 
Confederation,  10;  the  "Vir- 
ginia plan."  II  ;  opposes  the 
Constitution,  16  ;  Resolutions 
of  1798,  49,  112, 164  ;  Resolutions 
of  1709,  49 ;  secedes,  199 ;  re- 
admitted, 221;  ratifies  the  Con- 
stitution, 348 

Volunteers,  199,  200 


Walker,  Robert  J.,  178,  184,  367 
Walker,  William,  183 
Wanamaker,  John,  371 
War,  power  of  declaring,  31 
War   Department,   21.  216.      See 

also  Stanton.  Edwin  M. 
Warner  silver  bill,  253 
War  of  1812,  68,  77-79,  81-86,  iii 
Warren  County,  Miss.,  riots  in, 

239 
Washbume,  Emory  B.,  369 
Washington,   George,  19,  20,   25, 

28-33.  35.  37-43.  46,  89,  349, 350 ; 

presides  at  Convention  of  1787, 


Washington,  George— continued 
II  ;  President,  19-43;  aspersions 
on    his    character,    38,    39,   41  ; 
Farewell  Address,  41 
Washington,  D.  C,  23,  24,  53,  115, 
158,    194 ;    sacked  and  burned, 
82 ;    "  Armies    of    the    Unem- 
ployed "  in,  294 
Washington,  Treaty  of,  225 
Washington  Territory,   277,  361  ; 

admitted  as  State.  279,  348 
Watson,  Thomas  E.,  300,  357 
Weaver,  James  B.,  256,  287,  356, 

357 
Webster,     Daniel,    114,   128,    132, 

141,  144.  353.  366,  367 
Webster-Ashburton   Treaty,  144 
Welles,  Gideon,  369 
West,  A.  M.,  266,  356 
Western  harbor  bill,  144,  148 
West  India  commerce,  38 
West  Virginia,  199,  200 ;  admit- 
ted, 200,  203.  348 
Wheeler,  William  A.,  237,  243,  245, 
248,    249,    355 ;    Vice-President, 
248-258 
Whig,  5,  6 

Whig  Party,  2,  103,  no,  126,  130, 
134-138,  140-147.  149-154.  156.  157. 
159-165,  167-171,  176,  177,  202.  205, 
353.  354  :  origin,  128  ;  first  great 
success,    138 ;    quarrels      with 
Tyler,  141,  142;   decline,  159,  165, 
168,  169,  176 
W^hiskey  Insurrection,  37 
Whiskey  Ring,  238,  239 
White,  Hugh  L.,  128-130,  132,  353 
White,  John,  140 
White  League.     See   Ku    Klux 

Klan 
"White  Man's  Party,"  236 
Whitney.  William  C,  371 
Whitnev's  cotton  gin,  92 
Wickliffe,  Charles  A.,  367 
Wilkins,  William,  122,  353,  367 
Williams,  George  H.,  370 
Wilmot  Proviso,  60,  152-157,  159- 

161.  206 
Wilson,  Henry,  230-234,  247,  355; 

Vice-President,  233-248 
Wilson,  James,  372 
Wilson,  William,  Sr.,  372 
Wilson  tariff  bill,  292,  293 
Windom, William  H.,  370,  371 
Windstorms,  263 
Wing,  Simon,  357 
Winthrop.  Robert  C,  154 
Wirt,  William,  118,  122,  353,  365 


394 


Index. 


Wisconsin,   178,    285 ;    admitted, 

156,  348  ;  ballot  reform,  276 
Wolcott,  Oliver,  363 
Woman  suffrage,  266,  277,  282,  288 
Woodbury,  Levi,  366 
Woods,  Judge,  233 
Wool,  274,  275,  293 
Woollev,  John  G.,  358 
Wright;  Silas,  146 


Wyandot  Constitution  (Kansas). 

186,  i8q,  iQS  ,      .       .        „ 

Wyoming,    361  ;    admitted,    282, 

XYZ  Mission,  45,  46 

Yazoo  frauds,  60 
Yorktown  celebration,  262 


jollii  fo. 

Mend  by/.^...Time 


79-11   ^,fj 


[Unusual  mendingtime  charged  extra]  

Stab  byli:^'o.Sect..Z.^..<<r^ew  by....?^. 
Before  sewing,Score/.Press....Strip  Sect.... 

[Scoring   is   necessary    on    stiff   or   heavy    paper] 

Rate  

This  book  bound  by  Pacific  Library  Bhidinc""com- 
W  rt  IT^  ^''F\^^'  .^Pe^i^'ists  in  Library  mndhig. 
Work  and  materials  furnished  are  guaranteed  to  wear 
in.lofimtely    to    satisfaction    of    purchaser     and    anv 

out  n  n-t-^P'Y'^']^  ^"  ^'^^^'  ^-"1  be  made  goJ3  with- 
out additional  charge.     "Bound  to  wear." 


u£C  3     1950 


NOV  3  0  I960 


*%ti 


DEC  22  1960,    Kov 


^V'^ 


"5?  p.- 


m0 


36S 


.M 


L  006  341   583  0 


